The Şrivijayan Empire
Şrivijaya (also written Sri Vijaya, Indonesian: Sriwijaya, Thai: ศรีวิชัย or Ṣ̄rī wichạy) was a powerful ancient thalassocratic Malay empire based on the island of Sumatra, modern day Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia.36 The earliest solid proof of its existence dates from the 7th century; a Chinese monk, I-Ching, wrote that he visited Şrivijaya in 671 for 6 months.37 The first inscription in which the name Şrivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century, namely the Kedukan Bukit Inscription around Palembang in Sumatra, dated 683.37 The kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century due to various factors, including the expansion of the Javanese Madjapahit Empire.35 Şrivijaya was an important center for Buddhist expansion in the 8th to 12th centuries. In Sanskrit, sri means "fortunate," "prosperous or happy" and vijaya means "victorious" or "excellence".38
According to the Kedukan Bukit Inscription, dated 605 Saka (683 AD), the empire of Şrivijaya was founded by Dapunta Hyang Çri Yacanaca (Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa). He led 20,000 troops (mainly by land plus a few hundred ships) from Minanga Tamwan to Jambi and Palembang.
The empire was a coastal trading centre and was a thalassocracy. As such, it did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia, with the exception of contributing to the population of Madagascar 3,300 miles to the west.38Around the year 500, Şrivijayan roots began to develop around present-day Palembang, Sumatra, in modern Indonesia. The empire was organized in three main zones — the estuarine capital region centered on Palembang, the Musi River basin which served as hinterland and rival estuarine areas capable of forming rival power centers. The areas upstream of the Musi River were rich in various commodities valuable to Chinese traders.39The capital was administered directly by the ruler while the hinterland remained under its own local datus or chiefs, who were organized into a network of allegiance to the Şrivijaya maharaja or king. Force was the dominant element in the empire's relations with rival river systems such as the Batang Hari, which centered in Jambi.
Şrivijaya and its Kings were instrumental in the spread of Buddhism as they established it in places they conquered like Java, Malaya, and other lands. People making pilgrimages were encouraged to spend time with the monks in the capital city of Palembang on their journey to India. 40
A stronghold of Vajrayana Buddhism, Şrivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia. These included the Chinese monk I-Ching, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on his way to study at Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695, and the 11th century Bengali Buddhist scholar Atisha, who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana Buddhism in Tibet. I Ching reports that the kingdom was home to more than a thousand Buddhist scholars; it was in Şrivijaya that he wrote his memoir of Buddhism during his own lifetime. Travellers to these islands mentioned that gold coinage was in use on the coasts, but not inland. A notable Şrivijayan revered Buddhist scholar is Dharmakirti that taught Buddhist philosophy in Şrivijaya and Nalanda, he was the teacher of Atisha.
Under the leadership of Jayanasa, the kingdom of Melayu became the first kingdom to be integrated into the Şrivijayan Empire. This possibly occurred in the 680s. Melayu, also known as Jambi, was rich in gold and was held in high esteem. Şrivijaya recognized that the submission of Melayu would increase its own prestige. 41
According to the Kota Kapur Inscription, discovered on Bangka Island, the empire conquered most of Southern Sumatra and neighboring island of Bangka, as far as Lampung. Also according to this inscription, Jayanasa launched a military campaign against Bhumi Java in late 7th century, a period which coincides with the decline of Tarumanagara in West Java and Holing (Kalingga) in Central Java. The empire thus grew to control the trade on the Strait of Malacca, Sunda Strait, the South China Sea, the Java Sea, and Karimata Strait.
Chinese records dating to the late 7th century mention two Sumatran kingdoms, as well as three other kingdoms on Java as part of Şrivijaya. By the end of the 8th century, many western Javanese kingdoms, such as Tarumanagara and Holing, were within the Şrivijayan sphere of influence. It has also been recorded that a Buddhist family related to Şrivijaya dominated central Java at that time.42The family was probably the Şailendras. 43 The ruling lineage of Şrivijaya intermarried with the Sailendras of Central Java and lived along the Javanese Sanjaya dynasty when the Şrivijayan capital was located in Java.
During the same century, Langkasuka on the Malay Peninsula became part of Şrivijaya.44 Soon after this, Pan Pan and Trambralinga, which were located north of Langkasuka, came under Şrivijayan influence. These kingdoms on the peninsula were major trading nations that transported goods across the peninsula's isthmus.
With the expansion into Java and the Malay Peninsula, Şrivijaya controlled two major trade choke points in Southeast Asia. Some Şrivijayan temple ruins are observable in Thailand and Cambodia.
The area of Chaiya, in Surat Thani Province, Thailand, was already inhabited in prehistoric times by Semang and Malayan tribes. Founded in the 3rd century, the Şrivijaya kingdom dominated the Malay Peninsula and much of the island of Java from there until the 13th century. The city of Chaiya's name may be derived from its original Malay name "Cahaya" (meaning 'light', 'gleam' or 'glow'). The Cebuano word “kahayag” which means light is derived from the Malay word “cahaya”. However, some scholars believe that Chai-ya probably comes from Sri-vi-ja-ya. It was a regional capital in the Şrivijaya Empire of the 5th to 13th century. Some Thai historians argue it was the capital of Şrivijaya itself, but this is generally discounted. Wiang Sa and Phunphin were other main settlements of that time.
At some point in the 7th century, Cham ports in eastern Indochina started to attract traders. This diverted the flow of trade from Şrivijaya. In an effort to divert the flow, the Şrivijayan king or maharaja, Dharmasetu, launched various raids against the coastal cities of Indochina. The city of Indrapura by the Mekong River was temporarily controlled from Palembang in the early 8th century.43 The Şrivijayans continued to dominate areas around present-day Cambodia until the Khmer King Jayavarman II, the founder of the Khmer Empire dynasty, severed the Şrivijayan link later in the same century. 45 After Dharmasetu, Samaratungga became the next Maharaja of Şrivijaya. He reigned as ruler from 792 to 835. Unlike the expansionist Dharmasetu, Samaratungga did not indulge in military expansion but preferred to strengthen the Şrivijayan hold of Java. He personally oversaw the construction of Borobudur; the temple was completed in 825, during his reign. 46
In the year 100 Hijra (718 CE) King of Şrivijaya named Şri Indravarman send a letter to the Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz of the Umayyad Caliphate and requested the Caliph to sent him a preacher who could explain Islamic faith to him. The letter reads:
"From the King of the kings who is the descendant of a thousand kings, whose (his) wife was also grand-daughters of a thousand kings, whose in (his) animal cages are (filled with) a thousand of elephants, whose (his) territory there are two rivers that irrigate the aloes tree, spices fragrance, nutmeg and lime lines that its fragrant aroma reach out to a distance of 12 miles. To the Arab King who does not associate other gods with Allah. I have sent you a gift, which is actually a gift that is not so much, but just a token of friendship. I want you to send me someone who can teach Islam to me and explain to me about its laws."
— Letter of Şrivijayan King, Şri Indravarman for Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz. 47
This event demonstrates that the Şrivijayan court had established diplomatic and trade relations with the Islamic-Arab world, however it does not necessarily signify the Şrivijayan king had embraced Islam, rather, it more likely signified the king's desire to learn more about laws and cultures of his trading partners and the civilizations around known world of Şrivijaya; namely China, India and the Middle East.
Although historical records and archaeological evidence are scarce, it appears that by the seventh century, Şrivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of Sumatra, western Java and much of the Malay Peninsula. Dominating the Malacca and Sunda straits, Şrivijaya controlled both the spice route traffic and local trade, charging a toll on passing ships. Serving as an entrepôt for Chinese, Malay, and Indian markets, the port of Palembang, accessible from the coast by way of a river, accumulated great wealth. Envoys travelled to and from China frequently.
In the world of commerce, Şrivijaya rapidly rose to be a far-flung empire controlling the two passages between India and China, namely the Sunda Strait from Palembang and the Malacca strait from Kedah. Arab accounts state that the empire of the maharaja was so vast that in two years the swiftest vessel could not travel round all its islands, which produced camphor, aloes, cloves, sandal-wood, nutmegs, cardamom and cubebs, ivory, gold and tin, making the maharaja as rich as any king in India.48
Other than fostering the lucrative trade relations with India and China, Şrivijaya also established commerce link with Arabia. Highly possible, a messenger sent by Maharaja Sri Indravarman to deliver his letter for Caliph Umar ibn AbdulAziz of Ummayad in 718, was returned to Şrivijaya with Zanji (black female slave from Zanj), the Caliph's present for maharaja. Later the Chinese chronicle mentioned about Shih-li-t-'o-pa-mo (Sri Indravarman), Maharaja of Shih-li-fo-shih in 724 had sent the emperor a ts'engchi (Chinese spelling of Arabic Zanji) as a gift. 47
Melayu kingdom was the first rival power center absorbed into the empire, and thus began the domination of the region through trade and conquest in the 7th and 9th centuries. Melayu kingdom's gold mines up in Batang Hari river hinterland were a crucial economic resource and may be the origin of the word Suvarnadvipa (island of gold), the Sanskrit name for Sumatra. Şrivijaya helped spread the Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo. Şrivijaya's influence waned in the 11th century. It was in frequent conflict with, and ultimately subjugated by, Javanese kingdoms, first Singhasari and then Madjapahit. This was not the first time the Şrivijayans conflicted with the Javanese. According to historian Paul Michel Munoz, the Javanese Sanjaya dynasty was a strong rival of the Şrivijayans in the 8th century when the Şrivijayan capital was located in Java. The seat of the empire moved to Melayu Muaro Jambi in the last centuries of Şrivijaya's existence.
The Khmer Empire might also have been a tributary in its early stages.
Some historians claim that Chaiya in the Surat Thani province in Southern Thailand was at least temporarily the capital of Şrivijaya, but this claim is widely disputed. However, Chaiya was probably a regional centre of the kingdom. The temple of Borom That in Chaiya contains a reconstructed pagoda in Şrivijaya style. 49
Phra Boromathat Chaiya is highlighted by the chedi in Şrivijaya style, dating back from the 7th century but elaborately restored. Buddha relics are enshrined in the chedi; in the surrounding chapels are several Buddha statues in Şrivijaya style as it was labeled by Prince Damrong in his Collected Inscriptions of Siam, is now attributed to Wat Hua Wiang in Chaiya. Dated to the year 697 of the Mahasakkarat era (i.e. 775 CE), the inscription on a Bai Sema shaped stone tells about the King of Şrivijaya having erected three stupas at that site that possibly the one at Wat Phra Borom That. But also be assumed as three stupas at Wat Hua Wiang (Hua Wiang temple), Wat Lhong (Lhong temple) and Wat Kaew (Kaew temple) found in the area of Chaiya ancient city, stand in the direction from north to south on the old sand dune.
After the fall of the Şrivijaya in Chaiya, the area was divided into the cities (Mueang) Chaiya, Thatong (now Kanchanadit) and Khirirat Nikhom.
After trade disruption at Canton between 820 and 850, the ruler of Jambi (Melayu Kingdom) was able to assert enough independence to send missions to China in 853 and 871.
In 856, Balaputra, a son of a Şrivijayan princess and a Sailendra ruler, was defeated in battle and fled to Şrivijaya. After this time, Sailendra power flourished in Sumatra and waned in Java. The struggle between the former and the new centers of Sailendra power for control of international trade is recorded in both Chinese records and inscriptions.
Şrivijaya also maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal, and an 860 Nalanda inscription records that maharaja Balaputra dedicated a monastery at the Nalanda University in Pala territory.
Melayu kingdom's independence coincided with the troubled time when the Sailendran Balaputradewa, expelled from Java, seized the throne of Şrivijaya. The new maharaja was able to dispatch a tributary mission to China by 902. Only two years later, the expiring Tang Dynasty conferred a title on a Şrivijayan envoy.
Arab and Persian sources reinforce epigraphic evidence indicating the presence of an important polity somewhere in Sumatra or Java. About 916, Abu Said, a Persian amateur geographer, compiled an account based on his own readings and on interviews with people who had sailed to the east. Abu Said had mentioned the king of Zabag, called ‘Maharaja’, whose possessions are principally on the island of Şrivijaya. Accordingly, this Maharaja throws a gold ingot into a pool of water. Only at low tide could one see the vast accumulation of gold ingots in the pool. At the death of the Maharaja, the gold was recovered and distributed to the princes and the royal family, among men, women and children equally; and to the officers and eunuchs according to their rank and prerogatives of their offices. What remained was given to the poor and unfortunate. In 943, the Arab Masudi added in his writing that the empire of the Maharaja is the ‘island’ of Şrivijaya, as wells as the ‘islands’ of Zabag (which is a general reference to Southeast Asia but particularly to Java and Sumatra), Rami (Aceh) and Kalah. Masudi offered a formulaic description of wealth and power – “when a cock in that country crows at sunrise, others answer in a wave through contiguous villages extending outward to over 600 kilometers”.
It was during this period that Malay kingdoms and trade centers in the Visayan Islands emerged with the advent of the Sumatran migration for trade and colonization.
In the first half of the tenth century, between the fall of Tang and the rise of Song, there was brisk trade between the overseas world and the Fujian kingdom of Min and the rich Guangdong kingdom of Nan Han. Şrivijaya undoubtedly benefited from this, in anticipation of the prosperity it was to enjoy under the early Song. Circa 903, the Muslim writer Ibn Rustah was so impressed with the wealth of Şrivijaya's ruler that he declared one would not hear of a king who was richer, stronger or with more revenue. The main urban centres were at Palembang (especially the Karanganyar site near Bukit Seguntang area), Muara Jambi and Kedah.
The migration to Madagascar accelerated in the 9th century, when the powerful Sumatran empire of Şrivijaya controlled much of the maritime trade in the Indian Ocean.38
In late 10th century the rivalry between Sumatran Şrivijaya and Javanese Medang kingdom has become more intense and hostile. The animosity was probably caused by Şrivijaya’s effort to reclaim Sailendra lands in Java, as Balaputra and his offsprings — the series Şrivijaya Maharajas — belonged to Sailendra Dynasty, or probably led by Medang aspiration to challenge Şrivijaya domination in the region. In the year 990, king Dharmawangsa launched a naval invasion against Şrivijaya, and unsuccessfully attempted to capture Palembang. Dharmawangsa's invasion has led the Maharaja of Şrivijaya, Chulamaniwarmadewa to seek protection from China. In 1006, Şrivijaya's mandala alliance has proven its resilience by succeeds to repelled the Javanese invasion. In retaliation, Şrivijaya assisted Haji (king) Wurawari of Lwaram to revolt, attacked and destroyed the Medang palace. With the death of Dharmawangsa and the fall of the Medang capital, Şrivijaya has contributed to the collapse of Medang kingdom, leaving Eastern Java in further unrest, violence, and desolation for several years to come.
The transliteration of the Laguna Copperplate Inscription shows heavy Sanskrit, Old Javanese and Malay linguistic influence. Among the observances made by Pigafetta in the 16th century Boxer Codex, Old Malay was spoken among pre-colonized Filipinos as a lingua franca.
The use of Hindu references in the Laguna Copperplate Inscription could also suggest the people who authored this inscription, were followers of Hinduism and Buddhism at this time in history. The following is Morrow’s English approximation of his translation:
Long Live! Year of Şaka 822, month of Vaisakha, (i.e., Monday, April 21, 900 AD) according to Jyotisha (Hindu astronomy).
The fourth day of the waning moon, Monday. On this occasion, Lady Angkatan, and her brother whose name is Bukah, the children of the Honorable Namwaran, were awarded a document of complete pardon from the Commander in Chief of Tundun (Tondo), represented by the Lord Minister of Pailah, Jayadewa.
By this order, through the scribe, the Honorable Namwaran has been forgiven of all and is released from his debts and arrears of 1 Katî and 8 Suwarna before the Honorable Lord Minister of Puliran Kasumuran by the authority of the Lord Minister of Pailah.
Because of his faithful service as a subject of the Chief, the Honorable and widely renowned Lord Minister of Binwangan recognized all the living relatives of Namwaran who were claimed by the Chief of Dewata, represented by the Chief of Medang.
Yes, therefore the living descendants of the Honorable Namwaran are forgiven, indeed, of any and all debts of the Honorable Namwaran to the Chief of Dewata.
This, in any case, shall declare to whomever henceforth that on some future day should there be a man who claims that no release from the debt of the Honorable... 51
The Laguna inscription is the first indication that the Old Melayu had developed a vocabulary to deal with matters of debt and class distinction.
While the Philippines remained at the edge of Melayu influence, Java at the very outset was central to the idea of Melayu. The desire to emulate Şrivijaya is evident in the manner in which ambitious rulers in Central Java used Old Melayu documents to consolidate their positions.
On the north coast of Central Java, the inscriptions invoke the gods of different regions, while that found in the Kedu Plains to the south simply calls on the spirit of Tandrum Luah, the Protector Spirit of Şrivijaya. An Old Melayu inscription found at Sojomerto on Java mentions Dapunta Selendra, an ‘ardent Saivite’, whom Boechari believes to have been the founder (vamsakara) of the Sailendras, one of the powerful families that governed central Java from the second half of the eighth to the first half of the ninth centuries.
Mahayana Buddhism flourished with the establishment of the dynasty since the Sailendra overlord was from Şrivijaya, a Mahayana center since the seventh century.
Relations with the Chola dynasty of southern India were initially friendly but deteriorated into actual warfare in the eleventh century.
In 1025, Rajendra Chola, the Chola king from Coromandel in South India, conquered Kedah from Şrivijaya and occupied it for some time. The Cholas continued a series of raids and conquests of parts of Sumatra and Malay Peninsula for the next 20 years. Although the Chola invasion was ultimately unsuccessful, it gravely weakened the Şrivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade.
Between 1079 and 1088, Chinese records show that Şrivijaya sent ambassadors from Jambi and Palembang. In 1079 in particular, an ambassador from Jambi and Palembang each visited China. Jambi sent two more ambassadors to China in 1082 and 1088. This suggests that the centre of Şrivijaya frequently shifted between the two major cities during that period. 52 The Chola expedition as well as changing trade routes weakened Palembang, allowing Jambi to take the leadership of Şrivijaya from the 11th century on.53
According to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-fan-chi54 written around 1225, Chou Ju-kua describe that in Southeast Asia archipelago there were two most powerful and richest kingdoms; Şrivijaya and Java (Kediri). In Java he founds that the people adhere two kinds of religions: Buddhism and the religions of Brahmins (Hinduism), while the people of Şrivijaya adhere Buddhism. The people of Java are brave and short tempered, dare to put a fight. Their favorite past time was cockfighting and pig fighting. The currency was made from the mixture of copper, silver, and tin.
The book of Chu-fan-chi mentioned that Java was ruled by a maharaja, that rules several colonies: Pai-hua-yuan (Pacitan), Ma-tung (Medang), Ta-pen (Tumapel, now Malang), Hi-ning (Dieng), Jung-ya-lu (Hujung Galuh, now Surabaya), Tung-ki (Jenggi, West Papua), Ta-kang (Sumba), Huang-ma-chu (Southwest Papua), Ma-li (Bali), Kulun (Gurun, identified as Gorong or Sorong in West Papua or an island in Nusa Tenggara), Tan-jung-wu-lo (Tanjungpura in Borneo), Ti-wu (Timor), Pingya-i (Banggai in Sulawesi), and Wu-nu-ku (Maluku).
About Şrivijaya, Chou-Ju-Kua55 reported that Şrivijaya had 15 colonies and was still the mightiest and wealthiest state in western part of archipelago. Şrivijaya's colony are: Pong-fong (Pahang), Tong-ya-nong (Terengganu), Ling-ya-si-kia (Langkasuka), Kilan-tan (Kelantan), Fo-lo-an (Dungun, eastern part of Malay Peninsula, a town within state of Terengganu), Ji-lo-t'ing (Cherating), Ts'ien-mai (Semawe, Malay Peninsula), Pa-t'a (Sungai Paka, located in Terengganu of Malay Peninsula), Tan-ma-ling (Tambralinga, Ligor or Nakhon Si Thammarat, South Thailand), Kia-lo-hi (Grahi, (Krabi) northern part of Malay peninsula), Pa-lin-fong (Palembang), Sin-t'o (Sunda), Lan-wu-li (Lamuri at Aceh), Kien-pi (Jambi) and Si-lan (Cambodia). 55
By the twelfth century, the empire included parts of Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Western Java, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, Borneo and the Philippines, most notably the Sulu Archipelago and the Visayan Islands (and indeed the latter island group, as well as its population, is named after the empire). 56
In 1158, based on Edrisi’s account, there was turmoil in China which caused the Chinese merchants to transfer their commerce to Zabag and to the islands subject to it. Accordingly, that decision was taken out of the latter’s reputation for fairness, good conduct, amenable customs and facility in trade, For that reasons the island of Zabag was highly populated and well frequented by foreigners.
Şrivijaya remained a formidable sea power until the thirteenth century. 35
According to this source in early 13th century Şrivijaya still ruled Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, and western Java (Sunda). About Sunda, the book describe it further that the port of Sunda (Sunda Kelapa) is really good and strategic, pepper from Sunda is among the best quality. People work on agriculture and their house are built on wooden piles (rumah panggung). However the country was invested by robbers and thieves. In sum, this Chinese source from early 13th century suggested that the Indonesian archipelago was ruled by two great kingdoms, western part was under Şrivijaya's rule, while eastern part was under Kediri domination.
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