Wednesday, July 13, 2016

FERDINAND MAGELLAN DIED IN JAKARTA (ENRIQUE DE MALACCA, FIRST CIRCUMNAVIGATOR OF THE GLOBE)



THE TRADES IN ANTIQUITY

Long before Christ, there was already a trade contact between the Mediterranean, Arabia, India, China, French Indo-China, and Southeast Asia by way of the African trade route and of the maritime trade routes between the Indian Ocean and China.

There are three possible maritime trade routes between the Indian Ocean and China.

1. Arab and Indian merchants could have voyaged to the western shores on the Isthmus of Kra, part-way down the Malay Peninsula, where they could have taken on a Chinese cargo, either transshipped up the Strait of Malacca from the South China Sea, or brought overland from ports on the eastern side of the isthmus.

2. Alternatively, they could have loaded their cargoes at an entrepot such as Palembang before re-crossing the Indian Ocean to their home ports.

3. A third possibility is that they traded directly with China, perhaps via a south-east Asian port. All of these routes could have been used simultaneously.

In antiquity the lands between Africa, India, and China were considered most precious in terms of products like gold, silver, incense, and spices. Hence, the said terrestrial paradise was often called as the “lands of gold, silver, incense, and spices” in different languages. Biblical account called the region as Ophir. Indian texts called it Suvarnadvipa. Arab travelogues called it Zaba, Zabaj, or Zanj. Egyptians called it Zabag or Zabak. Chinese accounts called it Tabak, Shopo, Shepo, Zubu, Qin-san, and etc. Greeks called Iabadiu, Sabadibai, and Zabai. Indonesian manuscripts called it Nusantara. All of those were all referring to Southeast Asia in general and Java (Java Major), Sumatra (Java Minor), and the Malay Peninsula in particular which then later on seemingly applied to refer the Malay Peninsula, Champa, Borneo, Sulawesi, Mindanao, Luzon, and Sugbu (Cebu).

Trade between the Arabs (particularly the Nabataeans), eastern Africa, the Mediterranean, India, China, and Southeast Asia flourished since the 13th century B.C. until the 16th century A.D.

The Sea People and the Phoenicians

The circumcised sea-people called bahre in Egyptian and orang laut in Malay had invaded Egypt for numerous times putting the latter in turmoil. In 1208 B.C., the sea-people invaded Egypt causing the pharaoh, Merneptah, to turn back an incursion. Later, Merneptah retaliated by invading the lands of the sea people in exploit which was recorded as relief murals at Karnak.1

Between 1180 and 1176 B.C., the Hittite and the Levant empires (except the Phoenicians) fell due to the invasions of the sea people.

In 1176 B.C., the sea people again invaded Egypt during the reign of Rameses III. A battle between Egypt and the sea people ensued somewhere at the shores of the eastern Nile Delta and partly on the borders of the Egyptian Empire in Syria. The said battle is known as the “Battle of the Delta” which has been described as “the first naval battle in history”.  This major conflict is recorded on the temple walls of the mortuary temple of pharaoh Rameses III at Medinet Habu in great detail.2

After defeating the sea people on land in Syria, Rameses III rushed back to Egypt where preparations for the invaders assault had already been completed. When Rameses III looked at the sea, he stared at a formidable force, thousands of enemies, and possibly the end of the Egyptian empire. This was a turning point for the pharaoh, particularly the idea of having to fight a sea battle, because the Egyptians had never had to do this seriously before. Rameses III reacted with tactical brilliance; he lined the shores of the Nile Delta with ranks of archers who were ready to release volleys of arrows into the enemy ships if they attempted to land. Knowing that he would be defeated in the battle at sea, Rameses III enticed the sea-people and their ships into the mouth of the Nile, from where he struck his ambush. He had assembled a fleet for this specific occasion. In an inspired tactical maneuver, the Egyptian fleet worked the sea-people’s boats towards shore where the Egyptian archers, based on land, devastated the enemy with volley after volley of deadly arrows. Meanwhile, the Egyptian marine archers, calmly standing on the decks of their ships, fired in unison. Their ships were overturned, many were killed and captured and some even dragged to the shore where they were executed. Consequently, the sea people were defeated even when they were able to set foot on Egypt's land. As Rameses III states regarding the fate of the sea people who dared to attack Egypt:

"Those who reached my boundary, their seed are not; their hearts and their souls are finished forever and ever. As for those who had assembled before them on the sea, the full flame was their front before the harbor mouths, and a wall of metal upon the shore surrounded them. They were dragged, overturned, and laid low upon the beach; slain and made heaps from stern to bow  of their galleys, while all their things were cast upon the water." 3

Every foreign power on the Mediterranean was destroyed in the face of the sea people’s onslaught; only the Egyptians were able to withstand their attack. However, this proved to be a pyrrhic victory, because in the end, Egypt were so weakened by it that it was never as powerful as it was prior to the sea people's invasion. The conflict with the Sea People also drained her treasury. Thus, the Egyptians used to say that “death comes from across the seas”.

While there is no documentation for any pursuit of the defeated sea people, who fled to Phoenicia, Egypt was saved from the fate of total destruction which befell Hatti, Alasiya, and other great Near Eastern powers. Rameses III could certainly content himself with a great and decisive victory. Although he had defeated the sea people, the Egyptian pharaoh could not ultimately prevent some of them from eventually settling in Canaan and Palestine some time after his death. The Egyptians did repulse the attack of the sea-people on their homeland, but the conflict exhausted and weakened Egypt's treasury to such an extent that she would never again recover to be a powerful empire. Rameses III is generally considered to be the last great pharaoh of Egypt's New Kingdom.

During this period also King Hiram of Phoenicia and King Solomon of Israel had sailed with their Arab sailors to Southeast Asia for trade.4 They were called as Indarapatra and Sulayman in the Malay epic of the same title which is very popular among the Maranaos of Mindanao who were believed to be migrants from Java and Sumatra in antiquity.

In the Malay epic the invasions of Egypt in four waves were characterized into four mythical beasts – the giant octopus Kurita; the warlock Tarabusaw; the giant bird Pah; and the giant many-headed bird Ptah. It was said that Solomon (Sulayman) by the plea of his “brother” Hiram (Indarapatra) had come to the island of Mindanao to save Ophir from the invasions. With the magical signet ring and sword (known as Zulfikar) given by Hiram, Solomon had defeated all the beasts but he collapsed after befallen with the wing of the many-headed bird. It was raining when Hiram found Solomon’s dead body. The “holy water from the sky” filled the jar which was put beside Solomon. Believing that it was heavenly sent, Hiram poured the water from the jar on Solomon. Solomon awakened and told Hiram that he was only sleeping. After that incident Hiram saw a very beautiful maiden (known in Java as Dewi Kilisuci, the name suggests in Sanskrit that either she is a solar goddess or sun-worshipper, and in Sumatra as Puteri Bulukis, a female form of an imperial title Bulkeiah or Bulukiyah which is derived from a Malay word buluk which means bubbling water) running away and hid in the cave underground. The maiden vanished. Hiram then heard somebody laughing behind him and when he looked at its source he saw an old woman carrying the jar.4

In relation to this, the Javanese legendary history had also said that many years ago, the sage Mpu Bharada divided the land of Java into the kingdoms of Janggala (Kahuripan) and Panjalu (Kediri), with the purpose of settling a dispute between two brothers over succession, which was done magically by means of holy water sprinkled out of a jar from the sky.5

Moreover, in the Javanese texts, it stated that there was a time that the queen of Java came to Mindanao since it was its source of gold. The Javanese migrants were known then in Mindanao as “taw sa guiwa” (people of Java).6

In the 14th century, Marignolli wrote, inter alia, that the Queen of Sheba was the only daughter of Semiramis7, who had conquered India and Ethiopia and made her daughter the first ruler “of the finest island in the world, Saba by name.”8 Marignolli located Saba on Java.9

In a rabbinical account like the Targum Sheni, it was stated that King Solomon had sent a letter to the Queen of Sheba, who at that time was in the city of Kitor (which is also called as Katur, Kedir, Kadir, Kediri, Kadiri, Kataha, Daha, Doha, and Gelang-gelang in other references) in the kingdom of Panjalu which is in southern Java, a mountain-cock called hoopoe requesting her to attend his court at once or else he would wage war against her and send war ships. 10

Ancient Sumatran chronicles also affirmed that the town of Lampong in North Sumatra was an ancient factory of merchants established by the Queen of Sheba, whereof one, named Nausem, sent her a great quantity of gold, which she carried to the Temple of Jerusalem, at such time as she went to visit the wise King Solomon; from whence she returned with a son, that afterwards succeeded to the Abyssinian Empire of Ethiopia, who was called as Prester John (King Menelik I of Axum).11 Incidentally, an Acehnese legend tells that the wali Hiram (Indarapatra) also visited the said factory of merchants in North Sumatra and that he was a brother of the Queen of Sheba, the wife of Solomon.12 Thus making Hiram the brother-in-law of Solomon.

Ahmad ibn Majid, 15th century A.D. Arab navigator and nautical writer, insisted that the suzerain of the Sumatran rulers was the king of Abyssenia, who, according to the most popular tradition, was descended from the Queen of Sheba and Solomon.13

There are Javanese manuscripts that claimed that some tribes in Java, Sumatra, Sunda, Papua, and neighboring islands were of Egyptian descent in antiquity.14 Interestingly, the Bugis royal house in South Sulawesi claimed that its genealogy could be traced back to Bilkis (Puteri Bulukis or the Queen of Sheba).15

Sheba or Shabat here is referred to the Southeast Asian empire in general, which at that time had accordingly included not only the entire Southeast Asia but also the entire Abyssinia & Egypt in eastern Africa, and the two islands – Java (the Proper) and Sumatra (the Minor) – in particular.16

Under the destructive force of the sea people’s attacks, all of the Phoenicians’ powerful adversaries had been destroyed. The Phoenician cities were untouched by this devastation that happened around them, which left these people in an advantageous position. The historical record shows their active cities quickly began to expand their domain by placing trading posts in Cyprus, the Aegean, Sicily, Sardinia, North Africa, Algeria, Morocco and Spain.17

The legacy of the sea people was that they had forcefully cleared away the old powers from the Mediterranean and left freshly plowed ground. In time the Greeks and Romans would rise and they—together with the often overlooked Phoenicians—would sow the seeds of Western civilization. The sea people gave rise to a powerful and wealthy sea-trading empire of the Phoenicians which stretched from Morocco to the Levant.18

Moreover, according to the findings of Dr. Stephen Oppenheimer as has been stated in his thesis book 'Eden in the East' (or The Malay Civilization, published under the Malay History Association which is a collective research efforts done by University of Hawaii), Malayo-Polynesians who were also referred to as Sumerians or Austronesians were the “people of the sea that once had an advanced civilization which brought the technology of rice domestication, copper wielding, animal domestication as well as water irrigation to the civilizations of ancient Egyptians and Babylonians during the post 3rd Great Flood due to the melting of ice caps”.

No doubt the ancient people of Southeast Asia specifically the orang laut (in reference to the three ethno-linguistic divisions of the “sea people” in Southeast Asia which included the Sama-Badjao, of which the ancient Cham people also belonged to) were actually the “sea people” that were referred to in Egyptian history. From this point of view, Southeast Asia had clearly become a maritime empire under the rule of a Phoenician monarch between the 13th& 8th century BC and of a Phoenician-descent monarch between 8th century BC & 16th century AD.

Chinese & Arab trade relations

Between 1027 B.C. – 221 B.C., the Chou Dynasty came to power in northern China. During this time, Chinese rule was extended and there was increased trade with other nations. The Chou Dynasty was replaced by the Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD), which is sometimes referred to as the greatest of all Chinese Dynasties. By 200 BC the Chinese culture had produced excellent craftsmen whose products were prized because of their beauty and specialty. Chief among these were products made of silk. During this period only China produced silk, which was exported to places as far away as Rome. Other Chinese exports included spices such as cassia and ginger, iron and jade.

From the earliest times, China conducted trade with Korea, both on land and by sea. From 140 BC regular trade fairs were held on the northern Chinese frontier, where furs and other valuable merchandise from Korea could be bought. Korean ships traveled along the coast, around the northern coast of the Yellow Sea to ports along the Shantung Peninsula, while others crossed the open sea to Nagasaki (Japan).

Farther south, China conducted trade using Chinese ships known as junks. These carried cargoes along the coast from Canton to Haiphong (today northern Vietnam). Junks left Haiphong and Foochow to travel via the Philippines to the Moluccas (Spice Islands) and to east Java. The journey took several months, and trade was mostly in cloves, nutmeg and mace.

From as early as 200 BC Chinese junks sailed to the Malay Peninsula and through the Strait of Malacca. There they met and traded with the Indonesian people and with merchants from east India.

It is interesting to note that the Han Dynasty conducted distant trade at the same time that the Nabataeans conducted sea trade. Both of these civilizations rose to power about the same time, and both of them waned at the same time. Interestingly enough, the Dong Son culture in North Vietnam (150 BC - 50 AD) corresponds to roughly the same time, which rose to prominence because of international trade of goods and ideas.
           
During the time of the Han Dynasty, Chinese products, such as silk reached the Roman Empire. Nabataean merchants not only traded in silk, but began to manufacture silk products in both Damascus and Gaza, known as Damask and Gauze silk products. Some historians have speculated that the rise in international trade during the period of 200 BC to 200 AD helped the Asian and Arabian civilizations rise to great heights, and acquire great wealth.19

Maritime Trade Routes to China and India

With their great quantity & variety of Chinese wares, Middle Eastern glass, and glazed pottery, Paem Pho and Ko Kho Khao on opposite sides of the Isthmus of Kra must have been the main entrepots (a commercial center where goods are received for distributions, transshipment, or repackaging) on the most frequently used trade route between China and the Middle East. 20

Chinese traveler I-Ching voyaged from China to Sumatra in AD 671 and wrote: "In the beginning of the autumn ... I came to the island of Kwang-tung, where I fixed the date of meeting with the owner of a Po-see (Arab) ship to embark for the south... at last I embarked from the coast of Kwang-chou (Guangzhou)." 26

According to Chinese records, the Persians (Po'ssi) and the Arabs (Ta'shish) seem to have dominated maritime trade with China at the height of the Tang Dynasty.22 They established settlements at Guangzhou, where they were sufficiently strong enough to sack the city in AD 758 and then evacuate as an act of retaliation against corrupt port officials. Chinese rebels then sacked Tangzhou in AD 760, reputedly killing thousands of Persians and Arab merchants. 23

After this, it seems that the Arab merchants abandoned the South China Sea and relied on south-east Asian shipping to supply the ports on either end of the Isthmus of Kra. These ports could have been operating for centuries, and the Arabs could have cut out the middle men by sailing directly to China, and they did this until they were forced to leave in 760 AD.

In AD 878 Huang-Chao burned and pillaged Guangzhou and murdered the foreign merchants along with many Chinese civilians.24 Arab geographer, Abu Zaid recorded that “no less than 120,000 Muslims, Jews, Christians, and Parsees perished”.25

An Arab source, the Muruj al-Dhahab, written by Mas'udi in AD 956 states:

"The ships from Basra, Siraf, Oman, India, the islands of Zabaj and Sanf came to the mouth of   the river of Khanfu (Guangzhou, old Canton China) with their merchandise and their cargo (before AD 877-878). Then the trader went by sea to the land of Killah (Kedah) which is approximately half way to China. Today this town is the terminus for Muslim ships from Siraf to Oman, where they meet the ships which come down from China, but it was not so once... This trader then embarked at the city of Killah on a Chinese ship in order to go to the port of Khanfu."21

It can be concluded that 400 years after maritime trade had been started by the Nabataeans the Arabs from around the peninsula were entering into trade with Asia. As the Roman Empire crumbled, and their trade structures evolved, more and more Arab groups entered into maritime trade between the Europeans and the east.

Cross India Sailing

Ships often gathered at Muscat port before sailing directly across the Indian Ocean with the monsoon to Quilon on Southern Malabar. Other vessels took the coastal route, along the northern short of the Arabian Sea and down the west coast of India, but this route was fraught with many dangers, mainly from pirates.

From Malabar passage was made either to Ceylon, the Island of Rubies, or directly to the Nicobar Islands where water was taken on.

The next port of call was Kalah Bar (Kedah). Ships sailed from there to Sumatra, Java and on to China. Those going directly to China proceeded down the Malacca Strait stopped at Tioman Island for water and then carried on across the South China Sea to ports on Champa. From there they sailed to Canton, either via Hanoi or via the more direct route past the dangerous Paracel Reefs. The return voyage followed the same route in reverse.27

Middle Eastern traders used either the Malacca Strait, or the Sunda Strait on their journey, stopping at Srivijava for supplies.24 Fa Hsien boarded an Indian ship that could carry 200 passengers for his voyage from Sri Lanka back to China in AD 413.28

Later a Tang Dynasty text stated that the ships of Sri Lanka (Ceylon) were the largest of the foreign vessels.29 In AD 748 the Chinese monk Jianzhen noted that on his way from Hainan to Guangzhou he saw countless seagoing vessels from India, Persia, Kunlun (south-east Asia) and other countries.30

Indianized Kingdoms

Funan, Champa, Langkasuka, Pan Pan, Kutai, Tarumanagara and Kalingga were among the earliest Hindu kingdoms in Southeast Asia established around 1st to 4th century. Despite being culturally akin to Hindu cultures to western historians, these kingdoms were truly indigenous and independent of India. States such as Şrivijaya, Madjapahit and the Khmer empire developed territories and economies that rivaled those in India itself. Borobudur, for example, is the largest Buddhist monument ever built. 31

These Indianized kingdoms developed a close affinity and internalised Indian religious, cultural and economic practices without significant direct input from Indian rulers themselves. While the issue remains controversial, it is thought that Indianization was the work of Indian traders and merchants as opposed to political leaders, although later the travels of Buddhist monks such as Atisha became important. Most Indianized kingdoms combined both Hindu and Buddhist beliefs and practices in a syncretic manner. Kertanegara, the last king of Singhasari, described himself as Sivabuddha, a simultaneous incarnation of the Hindu god and the Buddha.

Southeast Asian rulers enthusiastically adopted elements of raja-dharma (Hindu and Buddhist beliefs, codes and court practices) to legitimate their own rule and constructed cities, such as Angkor, to affirm royal power by reproducing a map of sacred space derived from the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Southeast Asian rulers frequently adopted lengthy Sanskrit titles and founded cities, such as Ayutthaya in Thailand, named after those in the Indian epics.

Between the fifth and the early eleventh century, Sungai Mas in the Bujang Valley was the center of Kedah. Buddhist inscriptions found in the valley are evidence of Indian contact from the fifth to the sixth centuries.

A number of inscription dating from the fifth century have been found on the northwest coast of the Malay Peninsula and the Isthmus of Kra. One of the inscriptions found south of the Muda River in Kedah, in an area known today as Seberang Perai, mentions a sea captain known as Buddhagupta who was a resident of “Raktamrttika”. The latter name is not used in India, and its meaning of “Red Earth”, or Tanah Merah in Malay, is a common place name on the peninsula. It may be a reference to Chitu (“Red Earth” in Chinese), a kingdom on the east coast of the peninsula, which was also an area of significance during this period. The texts of these inscriptions found in an area between Gunung Jerai and the Muda River indicate that this area was already intellectually and commercially linked to the outside world by the fifth century.

In the seventh century, it became a collecting point of local products for an expanded trade in the Straits. At a time when mariners could not calculate longitude but could determine their latitude through stars, Southeast Asian ships could sail due west from Kedah to reach southern India or Sri Lanka, while Indian ships went due east to Kedah. Sometime in the fifth century, Buddhagupta of “Red Earth” inscribed a prayer on stone at Bujang Valley before setting sail for India, and the Chinese pilgrim Yijing stopped in Kedah in 671 on his way to study Buddhism in India. Indian traders obviously found Kedah an important landfall, and even after Şrivijaya became the overlord of Kedah (by 685), Indian sources continued to regard Kedah, not Palembang, as the center of Şrivijaya. Archaeological discoveries of large shell midden sites in Kedah and directly across the way in east Sumatra are indications that these were areas of substantial populations. There is no evidence, however, that the Sumatran site was ever a trade port, which suggests that it may have provided the forest products that were then brought to the trading port of Kedah. The pattern of collection centers of local products serving major trade emporiums became well-established in the history of the straits of Melaka.

From the end of the tenth century the center in Kedah gradually shifted from Sungai Mas to Pangkalan Bujang, located on the first firm ground after the mangroves of the Merbok estuary, which maintained its dominance until the end of the fourteenth century. In the nearby Kuala Seligsing site in Perak, identified as a ‘feeder point’ most likely supplying an entrepot in “Bujang Valley, locally made beads, some from recycled foreign glass, as well as clay, bronze and iron items were found. Similarity of pottery designs on the Malay Peninsula, southeastern Sumatra and southwestern Borneo, and the discovery through metallurgical analysis that gold used in ritual deposits in a tenth to eleventh century temple in Kedah originated from western Borneo, are evidence of trade between these areas. The said links dating back to the period of migrations of the Melayu from their homeland in western Borneo to the new areas of settlement in southeast Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula were not severed until such time in 1300 that the sites of southern Kedah and Kuala Selinsing were abandoned.

Cultural and trading relations between the powerful Chola kingdom of South India and the Southeast Asian Hindu kingdoms led the Bay of Bengal to be called "The Chola Lake" and the Chola attacks on Şrivijaya in the tenth century AD are the sole example of military attacks by Indian rulers against Southeast Asia. The Pala dynasty of Bengal, which controlled the heartland of Buddhist India maintained close economic, cultural and religious ties, particularly with Şrivijaya.

A defining characteristic of the cultural link between Southeast Asia and Indian subcontinent is the spread of ancient Indian Vedic/Hindu and Buddhist culture and philosophy into Myanmar, Thailand, Malaya, Laos and Cambodia. Indian scripts are also found in Southeast Asian islands ranging from Sumatra, Java, Bali, south Sulawesi and most of the Philippines.32

Both Chinese and Indian had influenced much on the psyche of the people of Southeast Asia especially the Filipino people. The Chinese had not only contributed loan-words in the Cebuano language like diotay for small (amount), otaw for ironing clothes, ampaw for sweetened dried cooked rice, bakya for wooden slippers, kuya for older brother, ate for elder sister, and etc. but also in local customs, traditions, & beliefs like the use of fengshui in building a house, celebrating the new year with noise and twelve kinds of fruits, close family ties, and so many more. On the other hand the Indian had not only lent Sanskrit loan-words like “bhāgin” (sharing in) which became “bahin” (share) in Cebuano, “bhānda” (goods) to “bahandi” (property, wealth), bhāra (load) to bala or the shortened bah (to carry a person pick-aback), mutya (pearl), and etc.;33 but also the beliefs in man-eating and blood-sucking nocturnal monsters (e.g., ongo, wakwak, abat, anananggal, sigbin, kikik, kwi, ungga-ungga, tikbalang, and etc.),34 karma, and in reincarnation.

The Şrivijayan Empire

Şrivijaya (also written Sri Vijaya, Indonesian: Sriwijaya, Thai: ศรีวิชัย or Ṣ̄rī wichạy) was a powerful ancient thalassocratic Malay empire based on the island of Sumatra, modern day Indonesia, which influenced much of Southeast Asia.36 The earliest solid proof of its existence dates from the 7th century; a Chinese monk, I-Ching, wrote that he visited Şrivijaya in 671 for 6 months.37  The first inscription in which the name Şrivijaya appears also dates from the 7th century, namely the Kedukan Bukit Inscription around Palembang in Sumatra, dated 683.37 The kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century due to various factors, including the expansion of the Javanese Madjapahit Empire.35 Şrivijaya was an important center for Buddhist expansion in the 8th to 12th centuries. In Sanskrit, sri means "fortunate," "prosperous or happy" and vijaya means "victorious" or "excellence".38

According to the Kedukan Bukit Inscription, dated 605 Saka (683 AD), the empire of Şrivijaya was founded by Dapunta Hyang Çri Yacanaca (Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa). He led 20,000 troops (mainly by land plus a few hundred ships) from Minanga Tamwan to Jambi and Palembang.

The empire was a coastal trading center and was a thalassocracy. As such, it did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia, with the exception of contributing to the population of Madagascar 3,300 miles to the west.38Around the year 500, Şrivijayan roots began to develop around present-day Palembang, Sumatra, in modern Indonesia. The empire was organized in three main zones — the estuarine capital region centered on Palembang, the Musi River basin which served as hinterland and rival estuarine areas capable of forming rival power centers. The areas upstream of the Musi River were rich in various commodities valuable to Chinese traders.39The capital was administered directly by the ruler while the hinterland remained under its own local datus or chiefs, who were organized into a network of allegiance to the Şrivijaya maharaja or king. Force was the dominant element in the empire's relations with rival river systems such as the Batang Hari, which centered in Jambi.

Şrivijaya and its Kings were instrumental in the spread of Buddhism as they established it in places they conquered like Java, Malaya, and other lands. People making pilgrimages were encouraged to spend time with the monks in the capital city of Palembang on their journey to India. 40

A stronghold of Vajrayana Buddhism, Şrivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia. These included the Chinese monk I-Ching, who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on his way to study at Nalanda University in India in 671 and 695, and the 11th century Bengali Buddhist scholar Atisha, who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana Buddhism in Tibet. I Ching reports that the kingdom was home to more than a thousand Buddhist scholars; it was in Şrivijaya that he wrote his memoir of Buddhism during his own lifetime. Travelers to these islands mentioned that gold coinage was in use on the coasts, but not inland. A notable Şrivijayan revered Buddhist scholar is Dharmakirti that taught Buddhist philosophy in Şrivijaya and Nalanda, he was the teacher of Atisha.

Under the leadership of Jayanasa, the kingdom of Melayu became the first kingdom to be integrated into the Şrivijayan Empire. This possibly occurred in the 680s. Melayu, also known as Jambi, was rich in gold and was held in high esteem. Şrivijaya recognized that the submission of Melayu would increase its own prestige. 41

According to the Kota Kapur Inscription, discovered on Bangka Island, the empire conquered most of Southern Sumatra and neighboring island of Bangka, as far as Lampung. Also according to this inscription, Jayanasa launched a military campaign against Bhumi Java in late 7th century, a period which coincides with the decline of Tarumanagara in West Java and Holing (Kalingga) in Central Java. The empire thus grew to control the trade on the Strait of Malacca, Sunda Strait, the South China Sea, the Java Sea, and Karimata Strait.

Chinese records dating to the late 7th century mention two Sumatran kingdoms, as well as three other kingdoms on Java as part of Şrivijaya. By the end of the 8th century, many western Javanese kingdoms, such as Tarumanagara and Holing, were within the Şrivijayan sphere of influence. It has also been recorded that a Buddhist family related to Şrivijaya dominated central Java at that time.42The family was probably the Şailendras. 43 The ruling lineage of Şrivijaya intermarried with the Sailendras of Central Java and lived along the Javanese Sanjaya dynasty when the Şrivijayan capital was located in Java.

During the same century, Langkasuka on the Malay Peninsula became part of Şrivijaya.44 Soon after this, Pan Pan and Trambralinga, which were located north of Langkasuka, came under Şrivijayan influence. These kingdoms on the peninsula were major trading nations that transported goods across the peninsula's isthmus.

With the expansion into Java and the Malay Peninsula, Şrivijaya controlled two major trade choke points in Southeast Asia. Some Şrivijayan temple ruins are observable in Thailand and Cambodia.

The area of Chaiya, in Surat Thani Province, Thailand, was already inhabited in prehistoric times by Semang and Malayan tribes. Founded in the 3rd century, the Şrivijaya kingdom dominated the Malay Peninsula and much of the island of Java from there until the 13th century. The city of Chaiya's name may be derived from its original Malay name "Cahaya" (meaning 'light', 'gleam' or 'glow'). The Cebuano word “kahayag” which means light is derived from the Malay word “cahaya”. However, some scholars believe that Chai-ya probably comes from Sri-vi-ja-ya. It was a regional capital in the Şrivijaya Empire of the 5th to 13th century. Some Thai historians argue it was the capital of Şrivijaya itself, but this is generally discounted. Wiang Sa and Phunphin were other main settlements of that time.

At some point in the 7th century, Cham ports in eastern Indochina started to attract traders. This diverted the flow of trade from Şrivijaya. In an effort to divert the flow, the Şrivijayan king or maharaja, Dharmasetu, launched various raids against the coastal cities of Indochina. The city of Indrapura by the Mekong River was temporarily controlled from Palembang in the early 8th century.43 The Şrivijayans continued to dominate areas around present-day Cambodia until the Khmer King Jayavarman II, the founder of the Khmer Empire dynasty, severed the Şrivijayan link later in the same century. 45 After Dharmasetu, Samaratungga became the next Maharaja of Şrivijaya. He reigned as ruler from 792 to 835. Unlike the expansionist Dharmasetu, Samaratungga did not indulge in military expansion but preferred to strengthen the Şrivijayan hold of Java. He personally oversaw the construction of Borobudur; the temple was completed in 825, during his reign. 46

In the year 100 Hijra (718 CE) King of Şrivijaya named Şri Indravarman send a letter to the Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz of the Umayyad Caliphate and requested the Caliph to sent him a preacher who could explain Islamic faith to him. The letter reads:

"From the King of the kings who is the descendant of a thousand kings, whose (his) wife was also grand-daughters of a thousand kings, whose in (his) animal cages are (filled with) a thousand of elephants, whose (his) territory there are two rivers that irrigate the aloes tree, spices fragrance, nutmeg and lime lines that its fragrant aroma reach out to a distance of 12 miles. To the Arab King who does not associate other gods with Allah. I have sent you a gift, which is actually a gift that is not so much, but just a token of friendship. I want you to send me someone who can teach Islam to me and explain to me about its laws."

            — Letter of Şrivijayan King, Şri Indravarman for Caliph Umar bin Abdul Aziz. 47

This event demonstrates that the Şrivijayan court had established diplomatic and trade relations with the Islamic-Arab world, however it does not necessarily signify the Şrivijayan king had embraced Islam, rather, it more likely signified the king's desire to learn more about laws and cultures of his trading partners and the civilizations around known world of Şrivijaya; namely China, India and the Middle East.

Although historical records and archaeological evidence are scarce, it appears that by the seventh century, Şrivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of Sumatra, western Java and much of the Malay Peninsula. Dominating the Malacca and Sunda straits, Şrivijaya controlled both the spice route traffic and local trade, charging a toll on passing ships. Serving as an entrepôt for Chinese, Malay, and Indian markets, the port of Palembang, accessible from the coast by way of a river, accumulated great wealth. Envoys traveled to and from China frequently.

In the world of commerce, Şrivijaya rapidly rose to be a far-flung empire controlling the two passages between India and China, namely the Sunda Strait from Palembang and the Malacca strait from Kedah. Arab accounts state that the empire of the maharaja was so vast that in two years the swiftest vessel could not travel round all its islands, which produced camphor, aloes, cloves, sandal-wood, nutmegs, cardamom and cubebs, ivory, gold and tin, making the maharaja as rich as any king in India.48

Other than fostering the lucrative trade relations with India and China, Şrivijaya also established commerce link with Arabia. Highly possible, a messenger sent by Maharaja Sri Indravarman to deliver his letter for Caliph Umar ibn AbdulAziz of Ummayad in 718, was returned to Şrivijaya with Zanji (black female slave from Zanj), the Caliph's present for maharaja. Later the Chinese chronicle mentioned about Shih-li-t-'o-pa-mo (Sri Indravarman), Maharaja of Shih-li-fo-shih in 724 had sent the emperor a ts'engchi (Chinese spelling of Arabic Zanji) as a gift. 47

Melayu kingdom was the first rival power center absorbed into the empire, and thus began the domination of the region through trade and conquest in the 7th and 9th centuries. Melayu kingdom's gold mines up in Batang Hari river hinterland were a crucial economic resource and may be the origin of the word Suvarnadvipa (island of gold), the Sanskrit name for Sumatra. Şrivijaya helped spread the Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo. Şrivijaya's influence waned in the 11th century. It was in frequent conflict with, and ultimately subjugated by, Javanese kingdoms, first Singhasari and then Madjapahit. This was not the first time the Şrivijayans conflicted with the Javanese. According to historian Paul Michel Munoz, the Javanese Sanjaya dynasty was a strong rival of the Şrivijayans in the 8th century when the Şrivijayan capital was located in Java. The seat of the empire moved to Melayu Muaro Jambi in the last centuries of Şrivijaya's existence.

The Khmer Empire might also have been a tributary in its early stages.

Some historians claim that Chaiya in the Surat Thani province in Southern Thailand was at least temporarily the capital of Şrivijaya, but this claim is widely disputed. However, Chaiya was probably a regional centre of the kingdom. The temple of Borom That in Chaiya contains a reconstructed pagoda in Şrivijaya style. 49

Phra Boromathat Chaiya is highlighted by the chedi in Şrivijaya style, dating back from the 7th century but elaborately restored. Buddha relics are enshrined in the chedi; in the surrounding chapels are several Buddha statues in Şrivijaya style as it was labeled by Prince Damrong in his Collected Inscriptions of Siam, is now attributed to Wat Hua Wiang in Chaiya. Dated to the year 697 of the Mahasakkarat era (i.e. 775 CE), the inscription on a Bai Sema shaped stone tells about the King of Şrivijaya having erected three stupas at that site that possibly the one at Wat Phra Borom That. But also be assumed as three stupas at Wat Hua Wiang (Hua Wiang temple), Wat Lhong (Lhong temple) and Wat Kaew (Kaew temple) found in the area of Chaiya ancient city, stand in the direction from north to south on the old sand dune.

After the fall of the Şrivijaya in Chaiya, the area was divided into the cities (Mueang) Chaiya, Thatong (now Kanchanadit) and Khirirat Nikhom.

After trade disruption at Canton between 820 and 850, the ruler of Jambi (Melayu Kingdom) was able to assert enough independence to send missions to China in 853 and 871.

In 856, Balaputra, a son of a Şrivijayan princess and a Sailendra ruler, was defeated in battle and fled to Şrivijaya. After this time, Sailendra power flourished in Sumatra and waned in Java. The struggle between the former and the new centers of Sailendra power for control of international trade is recorded in both Chinese records and inscriptions.

Şrivijaya also maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal, and an 860 Nalanda inscription records that maharaja Balaputra dedicated a monastery at the Nalanda University in Pala territory.

Melayu kingdom's independence coincided with the troubled time when the Sailendran Balaputradewa, expelled from Java, seized the throne of Şrivijaya. The new maharaja was able to dispatch a tributary mission to China by 902. Only two years later, the expiring Tang Dynasty conferred a title on a Şrivijayan envoy.

Arab and Persian sources reinforce epigraphic evidence indicating the presence of an important polity somewhere in Sumatra or Java. About 916, Abu Said, a Persian amateur geographer, compiled an account based on his own readings and on interviews with people who had sailed to the east. Abu Said had mentioned the king of Zabag, called ‘Maharaja’, whose possessions are principally on the island of Şrivijaya. Accordingly, this Maharaja throws a gold ingot into a pool of water. Only at low tide could one see the vast accumulation of gold ingots in the pool. At the death of the Maharaja, the gold was recovered and distributed to the princes and the royal family, among men, women and children equally; and to the officers and eunuchs according to their rank and prerogatives of their offices. What remained was given to the poor and unfortunate. In 943, the Arab Masudi added in his writing that the empire of the Maharaja is the ‘island’ of Şrivijaya, as wells as the ‘islands’ of Zabag (which is a general reference to Southeast Asia but particularly to Java and Sumatra), Rami (Aceh) and Kalah. Masudi offered a formulaic description of wealth and power – “when a cock in that country crows at sunrise, others answer in a wave through contiguous villages extending outward to over 600 kilometers”.

It was during this period that Malay kingdoms and trade centers in the Visayan Islands emerged with the advent of the Sumatran migration for trade and colonization.

In the first half of the tenth century, between the fall of Tang and the rise of Song, there was brisk trade between the overseas world and the Fujian kingdom of Min and the rich Guangdong kingdom of Nan Han. Şrivijaya undoubtedly benefited from this, in anticipation of the prosperity it was to enjoy under the early Song. Circa 903, the Muslim writer Ibn Rustah was so impressed with the wealth of Şrivijaya's ruler that he declared one would not hear of a king who was richer, stronger or with more revenue. The main urban centers were at Palembang (especially the Karanganyar site near Bukit Seguntang area), Muara Jambi and Kedah.

The migration to Madagascar accelerated in the 9th century, when the powerful Sumatran empire of Şrivijaya controlled much of the maritime trade in the Indian Ocean.38

In late 10th century the rivalry between Sumatran Şrivijaya and Javanese Medang kingdom has become more intense and hostile. The animosity was probably caused by Şrivijaya’s effort to reclaim Sailendra lands in Java, as Balaputra and his offsprings — the series Şrivijaya Maharajas — belonged to Sailendra Dynasty, or probably led by Medang aspiration to challenge Şrivijaya domination in the region. In the year 990, king Dharmawangsa launched a naval invasion against Şrivijaya, and unsuccessfully attempted to capture Palembang. Dharmawangsa's invasion has led the Maharaja of Şrivijaya, Chulamaniwarmadewa to seek protection from China. In 1006, Şrivijaya's mandala alliance has proven its resilience to succeed in repelling the Javanese invasion. In retaliation, Şrivijaya assisted Haji (king) Wurawari of Lwaram to revolt, attacked and destroyed the Medang palace. With the death of Dharmawangsa and the fall of the Medang capital, Şrivijaya has contributed to the collapse of Medang kingdom, leaving Eastern Java in further unrest, violence, and desolation for several years to come.

During this period, Şrivijaya had established a kingdom in Manila which was under its sphere of influence 50 aside from Butuan which is evident on the Kawi inscription written on the copper plate found in Laguna which is dated back to 900 AD. The said document records that the ruler of Tondo, Jayadewa, carried the Hindu title Senapati or military commander and acted as supreme judge of all the lords of the nearby settlements. Among the counted allies mentioned in the document includes the Hindu kingdom of Mataram in Medang, Java. Moreover in the said document the king of Medang was acting as a representative of the chief of dewata in Butuan.

The transliteration of the Laguna Copperplate Inscription shows heavy Sanskrit, Old Javanese and Malay linguistic influence. Among the observances made by Pigafetta in the 16th century Boxer Codex, Old Malay was spoken among pre-colonized Filipinos as a lingua franca.

The use of Hindu references in the Laguna Copperplate Inscription could also suggest the people who authored this inscription, were followers of Hinduism and Buddhism at this time in history. The following is Morrow’s English approximation of his translation:

Long Live! Year of Şaka 822, month of Vaisakha, (i.e., Monday, April 21, 900 AD) according to Jyotisha (Hindu astronomy).     

The fourth day of the waning moon, Monday. On this occasion, Lady Angkatan, and her brother whose name is Bukah, the children of the Honorable Namwaran, were awarded a document of complete pardon from the Commander in Chief of Tundun (Tondo), represented by the Lord Minister of Pailah, Jayadewa.

By this order, through the scribe, the Honorable Namwaran has been forgiven of all and is released from his debts and arrears of 1 Katî and 8 Suwarna before the Honorable Lord Minister of Puliran Kasumuran by the authority of the Lord Minister of Pailah.

Because of his faithful service as a subject of the Chief, the Honorable and widely renowned Lord Minister of Binwangan recognized all the living relatives of Namwaran who were claimed by the Chief of Dewata, represented by the Chief of Medang.

Yes, therefore the living descendants of the Honorable Namwaran are forgiven, indeed, of any and all debts of the Honorable Namwaran to the Chief of Dewata.

This, in any case, shall declare to whomever henceforth that on some future day should there be a man who claims that no release from the debt of the Honorable... 51
           
The Laguna inscription is the first indication that the Old Melayu had developed a vocabulary to deal with matters of debt and class distinction. While the Philippines remained at the edge of Melayu influence, Java at the very outset was central to the idea of Melayu. The desire to emulate Şrivijaya is evident in the manner in which ambitious rulers in Central Java used Old Melayu documents to consolidate their positions. On the north coast of Central Java, the inscriptions invoke the gods of different regions, while that found in the Kedu Plains to the south simply calls on the spirit of Tandrum Luah, the Protector Spirit of Şrivijaya. An Old Melayu inscription found at Sojomerto on Java mentions Dapunta Selendra, an ‘ardent Saivite’, whom Boechari believes to have been the founder (vamsakara) of the Sailendras, one of the powerful families that governed central Java from the second half of the eighth to the first half of the ninth centuries. Mahayana Buddhism flourished with the establishment of the dynasty since the Sailendra overlord was from Şrivijaya, a Mahayana center since the seventh century.

In 1011, Rajah Sri Bata Shaja, the monarch of the Indianized Rajahnate of Butuan, a maritime-state famous for its gold-work sent a trade envoy under ambassador Likan-shieh to the Chinese Imperial Court demanding equal diplomatic status with other states. The request being approved, it opened up direct commercial links with the Rajahnate of Butuan and the Chinese Empire thereby diminishing the monopoly on Chinese trade previously enjoyed by their rivals the Dynasty of Tondo and the Champa civilization. Evidence of the existence of this rajahnate is given by the Butuan Silver Paleograph.

Relations with the Chola dynasty of southern India were initially friendly but deteriorated into actual warfare in the eleventh century.

In 1025, Rajendra Chola, the Chola king from Coromandel in South India, conquered Kedah from Şrivijaya and occupied it for some time. The Cholas continued a series of raids and conquests of parts of Sumatra and Malay Peninsula for the next 20 years. Although the Chola invasion was ultimately unsuccessful, it gravely weakened the Şrivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade.

Between 1079 and 1088, Chinese records show that Şrivijaya sent ambassadors from Jambi and Palembang. In 1079 in particular, an ambassador from Jambi and Palembang each visited China. Jambi sent two more ambassadors to China in 1082 and 1088. This suggests that the centre of Şrivijaya frequently shifted between the two major cities during that period. 52 The Chola expedition as well as changing trade routes weakened Palembang, allowing Jambi to take the leadership of Şrivijaya from the 11th century on.53

According to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-fan-chi54 written around 1225, Chou Ju-kua describe that in Southeast Asia archipelago there were two most powerful and richest kingdoms; Şrivijaya and Java (Kediri). In Java he founds that the people adhere two kinds of religions: Buddhism and the religions of Brahmins (Hinduism), while the people of Şrivijaya adhere Buddhism. The people of Java are brave and short tempered, dare to put a fight. Their favorite past time was cockfighting and pig fighting. The currency was made from the mixture of copper, silver, and tin.

The book of Chu-fan-chi mentioned that Java was ruled by a maharaja, that rules several colonies: Pai-hua-yuan (Pacitan), Ma-tung (Medang), Ta-pen (Tumapel, now Malang), Hi-ning (Dieng), Jung-ya-lu (Hujung Galuh, now Surabaya), Tung-ki (Jenggi, West Papua), Ta-kang (Sumba), Huang-ma-chu (Southwest Papua), Ma-li (Bali), Kulun (Gurun, identified as Gorong or Sorong in West Papua or an island in Nusa Tenggara), Tan-jung-wu-lo (Tanjungpura in Borneo), Ti-wu (Timor), Pingya-i (Banggai in Sulawesi), and Wu-nu-ku (Maluku).

About Şrivijaya, Chou-Ju-Kua55 reported that Şrivijaya had 15 colonies and was still the mightiest and wealthiest state in western part of archipelago. Şrivijaya's colony are: Pong-fong (Pahang), Tong-ya-nong (Terengganu), Ling-ya-si-kia (Langkasuka), Kilan-tan (Kelantan), Fo-lo-an (Dungun, eastern part of Malay Peninsula, a town within state of Terengganu), Ji-lo-t'ing (Cherating), Ts'ien-mai (Semawe, Malay Peninsula), Pa-t'a (Sungai Paka, located in Terengganu of Malay Peninsula), Tan-ma-ling (Tambralinga, Ligor or Nakhon Si Thammarat, South Thailand), Kia-lo-hi (Grahi, (Krabi) northern part of Malay peninsula), Pa-lin-fong (Palembang), Sin-t'o (Sunda), Lan-wu-li (Lamuri at Aceh), Kien-pi (Jambi) and Si-lan (Cambodia). 55

By the twelfth century, the empire included parts of Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Western Java, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, Borneo and the Philippines, most notably the Sulu Archipelago and the Visayan Islands (and indeed the latter island group, as well as its population, is named after the empire). 56

In 1158, based on Edrisi’s account, there was turmoil in China which caused the Chinese merchants to transfer their commerce to Zabag and to the islands subject to it. Accordingly, that decision was taken out of the latter’s reputation for fairness, good conduct, amenable customs and facility in trade, For that reasons the island of Zabag was highly populated and well frequented by foreigners.

Şrivijaya remained a formidable sea power until the thirteenth century. 35

According to this source in early 13th century Şrivijaya still ruled Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, and western Java (Sunda). About Sunda, the book describe it further that the port of Sunda (Sunda Kelapa) is really good and strategic, pepper from Sunda is among the best quality. People work on agriculture and their house are built on wooden piles (rumah panggung). However the country was invested by robbers and thieves. In sum, this Chinese source from early 13th century suggested that the Indonesian archipelago was ruled by two great kingdoms, western part was under Şrivijaya's rule, while eastern part was under Kediri domination.

The Singhasari Empire

Singhasari was a kingdom located in east Java between 1222 and 1292. The kingdom succeeded Kingdom of Kediri as the dominant kingdom in eastern Java.

According to the Pararaton, Javanese historical annals embedded with myths, Singhasari (or Singosari) was founded by Ken Arok (1182-1227/1247), who was said to be an orphan boy, son of a certain Ken Endok and the god Brahma, when he came to the kingdom of Kediri (which was later named as Daha). He worked as a servant of Tunggul Ametung, a regional ruler in Tumapel (which later on was known as Singhasari), to realize his evil plan in taking over the dominion of Java from Kediri by killing Tunggul Ametung and marry Ken Dedes, the spiritual symbol of power in Java. After the death of Tunggul Ametung, Ken Arok took control of Tumapel, a vassal state of Kediri, where both Hinduism and Buddhism flourished. Tumapel was renamed Singhasari, and Hinduism its dominant religion. Ken Arok then defeated and conquered Kediri itself in 1222 for Singhasari to become the dominant power on Java. He was considered as the founder of Rajasa dynasty of both the Singhasari and later Madjapahit line of monarchs. During his reign the faction between Kediri and Kahuripan over the political dominion of Java became worst, leaving it in political chaos, civil war, disaster, and distress.

Kertanegara (full name Sri Maharajadiraja Sri Kertanegara Wikrama Dharmatunggadewa), was the fifth, last, and most important ruler of the Singhasari, reigning from 1268 to 1292. He was the son of the previous king, Wisnuwardhana (reigned 1248-1268). He effectively held power from 1254 and officially succeeded his father when the latter died in 1268. Under his rule Javanese trade and power developed considerably, reaching the far corners of the Indonesian archipelago.

Kertanegara’s regnal period coincided with a period of expansion by the Mongolian empire under Kublai Khan and the death of his father in 1268 also coincided with the fall of the last Song dynasty and the year, according to Marco Polo, that the “Fakfur” of Manzi (Southern China) escaped to the “isles of the East” to seek for reinforcement and his assumption to power in 1269 also coincided to the year that the “Fakfur” (the Song emperor Duzong with a formal name of Mengqi) must have arrived in Java with warriors from Luzon. “Baghbur”, which means “son of the god” or “son of the king”, is a Persian equivalent for the Chinese “Tien-zu” (“son of heaven”) which was also “coincidentally” the principle used by Kertanegara as “son of Jaya Wishnuwarddhana” in claiming the throne of Singhasari. This could suggest and very probable that Kertanegara, who was a “non-born son of the gods” must be one and the same with the escaping Song emperor, who had killed the Mongol Khan, Möngke. 

Möngke was the eldest son of Tolui, son of Genghis Khan. According to a Syrian chronicle, Möngke is reported to have been killed by an arrow shot by a Chinese archer during the siege of Diaoyu while the Armenian historian Hayton of Corycus says that Möngke was on a Mongol war ship that sank in the Chinese seas while the Mongols were besieging an island fortress. However, another Chinese account tells that he died of a wound caused by cannon fire or a projectile launched from a Song Chinese trebuchet, while the Mongolians covered up the story by claiming that his death was due to illness to maintain their soldiers' morale. After Möngke's death, his younger brothers Kublai Khan and Arokboke (Ariq Böke, which literally means “son of Arok” or “son of the god Marduk”) had struggled over the kakhanship of the Mongol empire. While Möngke left a will declaring that the town should be massacred once taken, its siege continued for another 17 years before the defenders surrendered themselves to Kublai Khan, who promised to spare the lives of the town's residents.

The Song emperor, who supposedly, had not been killed, assumed the Javanese throne as the “Kertanegara" which means “he who unifies the kingdom (that was divided magically into two by the priest Bharada in ancient Javanese legend)” by inventing a legend of the dynasty founded by the “son of Ken Arok” with Ken Dedes. The invented story must be based on the succession of Arokboke’s father, Tolui, to the Mongol throne in 1227 and the story about usurpation was Kertanegara’s own biography itself. If this supposition proven true then he must be the predecessor of the Şailendra dynasty and the real founder of the would-be Singhasari dynasty that was lost by name but had been continued by bloodline.

Following the example of Kublai Khan, Kertanegara introduced Tibetan Buddhism in Java in order to gain the same degree of power so as to be able to protect the “isles of the East” from the same fate with Manzi which fell under the Mongol invasion. He erected back the Akşobhaya statue at Wurare which had been previously erected during the time of the mythical priest Bharada. It was a symbolic invitation to join against Kublai Khan on the basis of Buddhism and connubium.

Kertanegara was the first Javanese ruler with territorial ambitions that extended beyond the island of Java. Through a policy of friendly negotiations among neighbors, the Singhasari Empire reached the height of its power during Kertanegara's rule, which saw the dramatic expansion of Javanese power in Maritime Southeast Asia. He extended Javanese involvement in the lucrative spice trade with the Moluccas. He also put down rebellions in Java by Cayaraja in 1270. In the year 1275, the ambitious king Kertanegara launched a peaceful naval campaign northward towards the weak remains of the Şrivijaya in response to continuous Ceylon pirate raids and Chola kingdom's invasion from India which conquered Şrivijaya’s Kedah in 1025. The strongest of these Malaya kingdoms was Jambi, which captured the Şrivijaya capital in 1088, then the Dharmasraya kingdom, and the Temasek kingdom of Singapore, and then remaining territories.

The said naval campaign was known as the Pamalayu expedition (1275-1292) which was led by the admiral named Indrawarman, probably a brother of Kertanegara, who after crossing the sea towards Sumatra was then called as Mahesa Anabrang (literally means, “the admiral who crossed the sea”). The said Indrawarman married a Sumatran princess and begot a son whom they called as Adwayabrahma or Adwayawarman, who later on was more popularly known as Gadjah Mada which meant literally as “Elephant General” referring to his ability in understanding an elephant thus by so doing he could command it. Indrawarman established a kingdom of Shiloh in Simalungun.

Kertanegara put down another rebellion by Mahisa in 1280. Kertanegara managed to form an alliance with Champa, another dominant state in Southeast Asia, by marrying its princess, the legendary warrior princess in the tales of Marco Polo, or the “blue fairy” named Ai Co, which means “the Celestial Dame” in reference to the moon, or Aigiaruc, in Persian, which means “the Bright Moon” or simply the “Silver, light, or wisdom of Arok”. She was described as "a superb warrior, one who could ride into enemy ranks and snatch a captive as easily as a hawk snatches a chicken". From that union, in the latter part of the year, they begot twin daughters named Dyah Prajnaparamita or Joko Ken (“celestial lady”), after her father had been named as Joko Dolog, and Dyah Dewi Gayatri (who later became the rajapatni of Madjapahit). It was on their wedding day that the emissaries sent by Kublai Khan arrived at the audition throne room of the Singhasari court of Kertanegara demanding Singhasari’s submission and tribute to the great Khan – in Chinese legends, the tribute being asked was the “monsoon’s orb” or the “pearl of the dragon” which actually referred to the putri darawati (Chamese princess), who was actually the niece of Kublai Khan, being the daughter of Kaidu. Angered, Kertanegara humiliated the Khan by scarring the face of Meng Ki, one of the Mongols' envoys with a hot iron, and refused the demand. Some sources even stated that the king cut the envoy's ear himself. The envoy returned to China with the answer -- the scar -- of the Javanese king written on his face.

The next year in 1281, the second envoy sent by Kublai Khan arrived demanding the “princesses of Tumapel”. There were two “princesses of Tumapel” of great beauty – Dyah Prajnaparamitha and Dyah Dewi Gayatri -- who were considered as the “orbs of the monsoons”, which was based on the Oriental belief that the monsoons were powerful sea-dragons that possessed bright luminescence, which was called wahyu which literally means as “divine radiance”, which was loaned by the Cebuanos into ahyu (good) and after combined with kahayag (light), derived from çaya, it became kahyu (fire). The said monsoons’ orbs were often depicted as dazzling blue, green, orange, red, or white “balls of lights” streaking to the night sky and were often absorbed and possessed by the celestial virgins. This Power and Light, in Oriental belief, when absorbed by the celestial virgins – in this case, the daughters of Kertanegara who were called white, orange, blue, and green princesses according to the lights they possessed – could only be transferred to a leader of a dynasty through marital union. The movement of the wahyu typically marked the fall of one dynasty and the transfer of light source to another. The everyday presence of Power was more usually marked by teja (radiance) that was thought to emanate softly from the face or person of the man of Power. In this belief, the spiritual function of a queen as the embodiment of batin (spirit), or wisdom, in the Buddhist view, and “her union with the ruler is necessary for the achievement of full humanity for a lahir (body or means) without batin (spirit or wisdom) is death, and the reverse is nonbeing in the world”. Dyah Dewi Gayatri was also known in Damarwulan legends as Kençana Wungu or Kenya. Yet her sister Dyah Prajnaparamitha,who being the eldest daughter and being a princess of Tumapel (Singhasari), assumed the title Joko Ken, which means “celestial queen” and could be translated into Chinese as Kökötchin which had the same meaning and had a similar sound with the Chinese zhu-ko-chen which means “pearl of the dragon”.

It was probably after that incident that the third daughter of Kertanegara, named Dara Putih (which was corrupted in legends as Dara Petak) which means “white princess”, was born. And then the fourth and last daughter of Kertanegara, named Dara Jingga which means “orange princess” who was later known as Narendra Duhita which has a similar meaning, was born.

In 1284, Kertanegara had subjected nearby Bali to his vassalage. The king also sent troops, expeditions and envoys to other nearby kingdoms such as the Sunda-Galuh kingdom, Pahang kingdom, Balakana kingdom (Kalimantan/Borneo), and Gurun kingdom (Maluku).

As a tradition of the royal court at that time, Indrawarman returned to Java in 1286 to present his son to Kertanegara. It was on this occasion that Raden Wijaya came to the Singhasari court and presented himself as the Wiswarupakumaran, a nephew (or a son) of Şri Kertanagara Wikrama Dharmottunggadewa, and the rightful heir to the throne according to matrilineal principle. Raden Wijaya had brought gifts of the image of Amoghapasa Lokeswara and other fourteen Buddhist statues. After that, Indrawarman was sent again to Sumatra, leaving his son behind for a military training under Raden Wijaya, to conquer the kingdom of Melayu which included Palembang and Jambi as well as much of Şrivijaya and to secure the Malayan strait, the ‘Maritime Silk Road’ against potential Mongol invasion and ferocious sea pirates. These Malayan kingdoms then pledged allegiance to the king. King Kertanegara had long wished to surpass Şrivijaya as a regional maritime empire, controlling sea trade routes from China to India.

In 1288, the 12-year old Adwayabrahma, who was designated as a rakreyan mahamantri, was assigned as the leader of the Bhayangkara, an elite royal bodyguard composed of 14 young lads, who would escort the statue of Amoghapasa Lokeswara and probably Putri Darawati Ai Co and her two younger daughters Dara Putih and Dara Jingga to the Dharmasraya kingdom which was ruled by Maharajah Srimat Tribhuwanaraja Mauliwarmadewa, who was also the king of Champa. Among the members of the Bhayangkara were Rakreyan Sirikan Dyah Sugatabrahma; the judge of Payanan, Dang Acarya Dipangkeradasa; and Rakreyan Demung Pu Wira. The return of the putri darawati (Chamese princess) with her two younger daughters and the statue of Amoghapasa were Kertanegara’s gifts of love for his father-in-law, the Dharmasraya maharajah, Srimat Tribhuwanaraja Mauliwarmadewa. The statue of Amoghapasa Lokeswara was a symbol of protection of the Singhasari overlord on its vassal state against the the threats of Mongol invasion. The Dharmasraya king and all the caste – Brahmans, Kşatriyas, Vaişas, and Şudras – rejoiced at the presentation of the gifts.

Late in Kertanagara’s reign, the Pamalayu expedition succeeded in gaining control of the Melayu Kingdom in eastern Sumatra, and possibly also gained control over the Sunda kingdom and hegemony over the Strait of Malacca. Other areas in Madura and Borneo also offered their submission to Kertanegara.

In 1289, Kublai Khan had sent a third envoy to demand again the tribute he had been asking for a long time. But again it was refused.

After defeating the Melayu Kingdom58 in Sumatra in 1290, Singhasari became the most powerful kingdom in the region. King Kertanegara totally erased any Şrivijayan influence from Java and Bali in 1290. However, the expansive campaigns exhausted most of the Kingdom’s military forces and in the future would stir a murderous plot against the unsuspecting King Kertanegara.

With the bulk of the Javanese army in campaign overseas and Singhasari's defence weakened. Seeing the opportunity, Rakreyan Jayakatwang, a vassal king from the Kingdom of Daha (also known as Kediri or Gelang-gelang), prepared his army to conquer Singhasari and kill its king if possible, and assisted by Arya Wiraraja, his son, a regent from Sumenep on the island of Madura. King Kertanegara, whose troops were now spread then and located elsewhere, did not realize that a coup was being prepared by the former Kediri royal lineage.

The Kediri (Gelang-gelang) army attacked Singhasari simultaneously from both north and south. The king only realized the invasion from the north and sent his son-in-law, Nararya Sanggramawijaya, famously known as Raden Wijaya, northward to vanquish the rebellion. The northern attack was put at bay, but the southern attackers successfully remained undetected until they reached and sacked the unprepared capital city of Kutaraja. Jayakatwang usurped and killed Kertanegara during the Tantra sacred ceremony, thus bring a tragic end to the Singhasari kingdom.

Having learned the fall of the Singhasari capital of Kutaraja due to Kediri's treachery, Raden Wijaya tried to defend Singhasari but failed. He and his three colleagues, Ranggalawe, Sora, and Nambi, went to exile under the favor of the same regent (Bupati) Arya Wiraraja of Madura, Nambi's father, who then turned his back to Jayakatwang. With Arya Wiraraja's patronage, Raden Wijaya, pretending to submit to King Jayakatwang, won favor from the new monarch of Kediri, who granted him permission to open a new settlement north of Mt. Arjuna, the Tarik forest. He then opened that vast timberland and built a new village there. The village was named Madjapahit, which was taken from a fruit name that had a bitter taste in that timberland (madja is the fruit name and pahit means bitter).

In Marco Polo’s account, it was stated that Marco Polo had taken the Joko Ken, accompanied by one envoy, to the court of Kublai Khan, presenting her as the “pearl of the dragon” that he had been seeking for and the “bride” requested by her aunt, the queen of Persia, for Arghun Khan of Persia. From this perspective it could be very probable that the envoy, “sent” by Wiraraja to the “king of China”, was Raden Wijaya himself and the “king of China” who landed at Madura, with 14 big ships each had 4 masts and 12 sails, was Marco Polo. Thus, it could be part of the war tactic of Raden Wijaya in bringing the army of Kublai Khan in his aid which coincided also with the deception scheme of Marco Polo over the weakening Kublai Khan in his ultimate goal of escaping from the khan’s realm of power before it would collapse as he saw it and might become a trap for him if he delayed in realizing his plan. It could be recalled that Marco Polo could not use the land route from China to Persia since at that time there was an on-going wars at the borders; hence, the only way to escape was by using the sea-route. Thus, it could be probable that Raden Wijaya together with other two envoys who died at sea had escorted the princess in 1290 to China as part of the joint deception scheme of Raden Wijaya and Marco Polo in realizing their individual goals and reaching there in the early part of 1291.

Accordingly, Kertanegara was killed along with many courtiers in his palace in Singhasari in May or June 1292. He was apparently killed when drunk on palm wine in a religious Tantric Buddhist ceremony. Jayakatwang then declared himself ruler of Java and king of the restored Kediri. Dyah Dewi Gayatri had been captured and lived as a prisoner in Kediri.

Prapanca portrays Kertanegara as a staunch Buddhist, described as "submissive at the Feet of the Illustrious Shakya-Lion". Upon his death, the Nagarakertagama describes the deification of Kertanegara in three forms: a splendid Jina, an Ardhanarishvara, and an imposing Shiva-Buddha. Particularly for the Shiva-Buddha deity, Prapança praises him as "the honored Illustrious Protector of Mountains, Protector of the protectorless. He is surely, Ruler over the rulers of the world." The Shiva-Buddha deity is neither Shiva nor Buddha, but the Lord of the Mountains, or the Supreme God of the Realm. This religious belief is indigenous to the Javanese people who combined the gods of two religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, into the same God, the oneness of the dharma, as is written in the Kakawin Sutasoma. When Kertanegara was deified as Shiva-Buddha, he symbolized the collective powers of the God of the Realm.

In late 1292, Kublai Khan had sent a fleet of 1,000 war junks for a punitive expedition to escort Marco Polo and the Joko Ken or Zhu-ko-Shen to Persia and to subdue Java for the humiliation and the disgrace committed against his envoy and his patience. At that time too, Indrawarman who had assumed an Arabic title of Sultan al-Malik al-Salih in Samudra-Pasai died leaving his son Adwayabhrama or Adwayawarman as the new commander of the Pamalayu expedition (Mahesa Anabrang).

The Mongol fleet arrived off the coast of Tuban, Java in early 1293. While the flagship carrying Marco Polo, the Joko Ken and her Malay bodyguard anchored in Sumatra at the Dharmasraya port. Raden Wijaya allied himself with the Mongol army to fight against Jayakatwang and saved Dyah Dewi Gayatri. Once Jayakatwang was destroyed, Raden Wijaya forced his allies to withdraw from Java by launching a surprise attack. 59 Yuan's army had to withdraw in confusion as they were in hostile territory. It was also their last chance to catch the monsoon winds home; otherwise, they would have had to wait for another six months on a hostile island. The Joko Ken (Kököchin), Dyah Rajnaparamita, was taken to Persia who eventually married Muhammad Ghazan Khan instead of his father, Arghun Khan, who was already dead since 1291, and became his principal wife.

Indonesia is one of the few areas that thwarted invasion by the Mongol horde by repelling a Mongol force in 1293. As the center of the Malayan peninsula trade winds, the rising power, influence, and wealth of the Javanese Singhasari Empire came to the attention of Kublai Khan of the Mongol Yuan dynasty based in China. Moreover, Singhasari had formed an alliance with Champa, another powerful state in the region. Both Java (Singhasari) and Champa were worried about Mongol expansion and raids against neighboring states, such as their raid of Bagan (Pagan) in Burma.

The Madjapahit Empire

Madjapahit was a vast archipelagic empire based on the island of Java (modern-day Indonesia) from 1293 to around 1500. Madjapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 marked by conquest which extended through Southeast Asia. His achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gadjah Mada. According to the Nagarakretagama (Desawarñana) written in 1365, Majapahit was an empire of 98 tributaries, stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea;59 consisting of present day Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand, the Philippines, and East Timor, although the true nature of Majapahit sphere of influence is still the subject of studies among historians.

The Coronation of Raden Wijaya

In 1293, Adwayabrahma and the Bhayangkara together with the two princesses from Dharmasraya and a number of elephants had returned to Java. Raden Wijaya had chosen the elder princess, Dara Putih (Petak) to be his principal wife; hence she was then called as as TribhuanaIndreswari or in its shorter form, Tribhuaneswari which literally meant “she who is not the eldest but is favored by the king becomes his principal wife”. Raden Wijaya had given Dara Jingga to Adwayabrahma to be his wife.

As a royal tradition, on a day before his coronation, Raden Wijaya was married to the Chamese princess, Putri Darawati Ai Co; her daughters Dyah Dewi Gayatri and Dara Putih (Petak). It must be on that day also on a double wedding that Adwayabrahma was married to the other Dharmasraya princess Dara Jingga. Hence, Raden Wijaya and Adwayabrahma became brothers-in-law.

Raden Wijaya founded a stronghold with the capital Madjapahit. The exact date used as the birth of the Madjapahit kingdom is the day of his coronation, the 15th of Kartika month in the year 1215 using the Javanese çaka calendar, which equates to November 10, 1293. During his coronation he was given formal name Kertarajasa Jayawardhana. After Raden Wijaya’s assumption to the Madjapahit throne, he elevated Adwayabrahma into Rakreyan Mahamantri Gadjah Mada, the highest position among the rakreyans, symbolical to a war-god, hence the phrase in Pararaton, “the orange princess is given to a god”. 60

Madjapahit ruled much of Sumatra as the successor of Singhasari. Several attempts to revive Şrivijaya were made by the fleeing princes of Şrivijaya. In the following years, sedimentation on the Musi river estuary cut the kingdom's capital off from direct sea access. The strategic disadvantage crippled the trade in the Kingdom's capital. As the decline continued, Islam made its way to the Aceh region of Sumatra, spreading through contacts with Arab and Indian traders. By the late 13th century, the kingdom of Pasai in northern Sumatra converted to Islam. At the same time, Şrivijaya was briefly a tributary state of the Khmer empire and later the Sukhothai kingdom.

The Death of Raden Wijaya and the Lost of His Widadari

In 1309, the 44-year old Franciscan priest, Father Odoric Matiussi of Pordenone, Friuli, Italy, visited the palace of Raden Wijaya. He described the palace as follows:

“The king of Java has a large and sumptuous palace, the loftiest of any that I have seen, with broad and lofty stairs to ascend to the upper apartments, all the steps being alternately of gold and silver.

The whole interior walls are lined with plates of beaten gold, on which the images of warriors are placed sculptured in gold, having each a golden coronet richly ornamented with precious stones. The roof of this palace is of pure gold, and all the lower rooms are paved with alternate square plates of gold and silver. The great khan, or emperor of Cathay, has had many wars with the king of Java, but has always been vanquished and beaten back.” 61

Sometime later in that year, some of Raden Wijaya's most trusted men, including Ranggalawe, Sora, Nambi, and Kuti rebelled against him, though unsuccessfully. It was suspected that the Prime Minister, Mahapati Halayudha, set the conspiracy to overthrow all of the king's opponents, to gain the highest position in the government. Raden Wijaya died in the battle protecting his family. Gadjah Mada and Mahapatih Arya Tadah helped Raden Wijaya’s family – Rajapatni Dyah Dewi Gayatri who had newly delivered her twin girls; Dara Petak and her little boy son Jayanegara; and Dara Jingga and her little boy son Adityawarman -- to escape away from the capital city of Trowulan.

Based on the Syair Bidasari and the Panji written legends, one of the daughters of Rajapatni Dyah Dewi Gayatri, Rajadewi Dyah Wiyat, the future Bhre Daha, had been left in one of the boats of visiting merchants who were mostly Orang Bandjar (based on Matthiusi’s account) from the island of Borneo (referred at that time as Bandjarmasin or “island of the Bandjar”). Sulu and most of the islands of the Philippines at that time were under the kingdom of Borneo which was later known as Brunei, which was one of the seven kingdoms that composed the Madjapahit at that time. "Wiyat" has the same meaning with the Cebuano-Visayan word "bilat" which means literally as "vagina". Interestingly, Bilat is actually the name of the Babylonian goddess of war, hunting, and reproduction whose name literally means "great lady". She is considered as "queen of the gods".

The baby Rajadewi Dyah Wiyat might have experienced the ritual of implanting a stone in one’s arm believed to generate invincibility in wars both by sea and land. Father Odoric Matiussi described it as follows:

“In this country there grow canes of an incredible length, as large as trees, even sixty paces or more in height. There are other canes, called cassan (kawayan, bamboo), which spread over the earth like grass, even to the extent of a mile, sending up branches from every knot; and in these canes they find certain stones of wonderful virtue, insomuch, that whoever carries one of these about him, cannot be wounded by an iron weapon; on which account, most of the men in that country carry such stones always about them. Many of the people of this country cause one of the arms of their children to be cut open when young, putting one of these stones into the wound, which they heal up by means of the powder of a certain fish, with the name of which I am unacquainted. And through the virtue of these wonderful stones, the natives are generally victorious in their wars, both by sea and land.

There is a stratagem, however, which their enemies often successfully use against them, to counteract the power of these stones. Providing themselves with iron or steel armor, to defend them from the arrows of these people, they use wooden stakes, pointed like weapons of iron, and arrows not having iron heads, but infused with poison which they extract from certain trees, and they thus slay some of their foes, who, trusting to the virtue of these stones, wear no defensive armor. From the canes formerly mentioned, named cassan, they build themselves small houses, and manufacture sails for their ships, and many other things are made from them.” 62

Sometime later, from Borneo, the little girl was brought to Mindanao which was evident in the inscriptions found in some Sulu and Maguindanao tarsilas. It was mentioned that during the time when a certain holy men named Tuan Masha’ika and Tuhan Maqbalu came to Mindanao, the rulers of Magindanao (probably referring to the whole Mindanao Island at that time) were Rajah Tabunaway and Rajah Mamalu, who were blood brothers. It was said that one day the two brothers went to Rio Grande de Mindanao for fishing (or more probably docked their junk after their trade trips from Sumatra, Java, and Borneo and probably the baby fell on the bamboo trees at the riverbank just beside the junk). At the bank of the river there were bamboo trees. Mamalu cut down all the bamboo trees except one small stalk that was left standing alone. Tabunaway then called out to finish it all up for it would omen ill to their fish corral if it would be left alone. Mamalu therefore cut it and found in it a girl whose little finger was slightly cut by a slip of a kampilan. He carried the girl to Tabunaway, but Tabunaway told him to keep her and adopt her as his child because he had no children. They called the girl Putri Tuniña for they believed that she was a reincarnation of their mother who while still alive had asked Tabunaway to bury her comb on the very spot where they found the girl. 63

Tuniña is an Italian name associated with the legend of Granada about the hunchback Tuniño who was hailed into a normal boy with remarkable beauty by the fairies for his golden voice and fine character. It could be very possible that Rajadewi Dyah Wiyat was christened by Father Odoric Matiussi as a baby while still at Bandjarmasin. It could also be very possible that the rich merchants that had found the bidasari or widadari (celestial fairy) in their boat while in Java were the rulers of Mindanao and the “bamboo” is only an allusion of the Oriental myth that the first man and woman came out from a bamboo that was split up or to the Visayan colloquial phrase, “anak sa liking kawayan” (“child of a bamboo split”) which figuratively meant a child of unknown parents and of the bamboo-amulet ritual for a bagani (warrior who usually wore red clothing). And the said Tuan Masha’ika (which means in Jawi as “Holy Old Man” or “Prester John” denoting that he was the king of Ophir, which probably the ancient name of Mindanao) and Tuhan Maqbalu were actually Tabunaway and Mamalu respectively. Tuhan Maqbalu died sometime in November or December of 1310 A.D. (Rajab 710 A.H.) and was buried in Sulu, thus, leaving the princess at the care of Tabunaway as her new foster father.64

The Rise and Fall of Kala Gemet

Raden Wijaya died in the battle that probably took placed between October and December 1309 (or December 1310?). At the very young age, Jayanegara, the only son of Raden Wijaya, assumed the imperial throne with Rajapatni Dyah Dewi Gayatri as regent.

In 1319, a major rebellion hit Madjapahit, which forced Jayanegara to evacuate from Trowulan to the village of Bedander. He was escorted by the Bhayangkara which happened to be on duty that night. At this time, Gadjah Mada was head of the bodyguard. 65

After Gadjah Mada was assured that the emperor was safe in Bedander, he returned to the capital, which Kuti — the leader of the rebellion — had captured. There, he spread the rumor that the king was kidnapped by one of Kuti’s servants. Officials who were faithful to the emperor became very furious, and decided to kill Kuti. They succeeded, and the emperor went back to Trowulan in 1321 and ruled the kingdom for the rest of his life. Halayudha was captured and jailed for his tricks, and then sentenced to death.58 Because of this incident, Gadjah Mada was able to earn the emperor’s trust, which led to a gain in power. A few years after, Gadjah Mada was appointed minister of Kahuripan and Daha. This gave him the title of Patih, which made him a member of Majapahit’s elite. 66

On the other hand in 1328, the beauty of Putri Tuniña had already been known far across the empire. Gadjah Mada who had obtained the title of a rajah baginda of Minangkabau, "a rich, high region in central Sumatra, from which many Malayan dynasties seem to have come",68 was sent by Jayanegara to go to the Kingdom of Bandjarmasin (it was later replaced by the Sultanate of Brunei) to ask the hand of the princess and offer her his gift of elephants. But when Gadjah Mada, along with Rajapatni Gayatri, as part of the ancient custom in arranging royal marriages, arrived in Bandjarmasin, he had learned that the princess was not in the island of Borneo but in Mindanao and particularly in Sulu, the kingdom of her foster fathers. Thus, Gadjah Mada, leaving the rajapatni in Bandjarmasin for her safety, sailed to Sulu. This explains the existence in Jolo of elephants at the arrival of the Spanish expeditions.68

Charles Wilkes, an American naval commander, who had visited the Sulu region in 1842, reported an oral tradition linking the Sulu sultanate with that of Banjarmasin:

The fame of the submarine reaches of this archipelago reached Banjar or Borneo, the people of which were induced to resort there, and finding it to equal their expectation, they sent a large colony and made endeavors to win over the inhabitants, and obtain thereby the possession of their rich isle. In order to confirm the alliance, a female of Banjarmassing, of great beauty, was sent, and married to the principal chief; and from this alliance the sovereign of Sulu claim their descent. The treaty of marriage made Sulu tributary to the Banjarmassing empire.69

During that time Bandjarmasin was a vassal kingdom to Madjapahit. And the old maritime trade route from Sumatra had to pass to Java then to Bandjarmasin, to Brunei, and then to Sulu. Another tarsila had mentioned that when the prince had taken the princess to Bandjarmasin where the queen of Madjapahit (Rajapatni Gayatri) was meeting to meet her together with her parents, the queen had found out the princess was her long lost daughter for aside of her resemblance to her as her real mother and to her twin sister Dyah Sri Gitarja she was wearing the queen’s comb and necklace and using the queen’s fan.

It was found out that Jayanegara and the princess were cousins; worst half-brother and half-sister respectively. The marriage was cancelled but according to tarsilas, the emperor insisted that among the Arabs, since he was an Arab-descent, marrying a cousin or a half-sister was not a taboo. But the princess, although christened when young but was raised as Muslim by his foster father, insisted that in Koranic laws it was forbidden for a brother and sister to marry in any lands of the world. Then accordingly, the emperor decided to set the wedding with an imam at the sea with a thousand ships for the sea was not part of the lands, therefore an exemption to the Koranic laws.

In the said version, the princess who after the wedding ceremony was sitting at the ship’s deck knitting a kerchief was startled when the emperor embraced her from behind that she had accidentally stabbed the emperor’s finger with a needle causing it to bleed incessantly. In one of the versions of the Nyai Roro Kidul legends it was not a needle but a snake-like sacred dagger known as keris (kris) that was used by the princess to stub the emperor after he tried to rape her. The said dagger was always kept by the princess in her pudenda (Forman and Solc n.d.). As the emperor collapsed, the princess thinking she had killed him jumped off to the sea.The fleet was said to be hit by a storm when the princess swam to sea-shore and hid in the forest. In the Nyai Roro Kidul legends the place was identified as the island off the south coast of Java named Karang Bandung (Nusakambangan) believed to be inhabited by the spirits of white tigers referring to the dead rulers of Java.70

In the Javanese traditions, the princess was found by the senapati Adityawarman in the forest collecting the flower known as wijayakusuma (Pisonia grandis, var. Silvestris; Rahardi et al. 1991), which bloomed briefly at night, spreading its essence far and wide only to wilt by dawn and which (Berg 1938, 21) was believed to give invincibility in battle (Van Hein 1994, 7-12). In the said version the princess wished not to return since by marrying and killing her half-brother-husband she was inflicted with a spiritual leprosy which made her dirty and ugly in the eyes of Allah. In the same version, the emperor “did not stay to enjoy conjugal bliss, however, but went on his way the following day” (Prawirasuganda 1964, 85-86; Lubis 1969, 77-78). In the Prapança, it was stated that while the emperor was lying sick on his bed Gadjah Mada had called a surgeon, Ra Tança, to perform an operation. But the emperor died. Probably to keep secret what had really happened to save the empire from falling apart, Gadjah Mada killed Ra Tança and spread the rumors that Jayanegara was notorious for immorality and that one of his sinful acts was his desire on taking his own half sisters as wives; his attempt in raping Dara Jingga, his own aunt; and his constant mockery of Ra Tança for eyeing on the beauty of Rajadewi Dyah Wiyat which caused Ra Tança in murdering him by a false operation. It could be understood that the princess believing that it was Ra Tança who murdered the emperor and not her was convinced to go back to Daha (Kediri). Her association with the death of Jayanegara might be the reason of her bad relationship with Dara Putih (Tribhuaneshwari), Jayanegara’s mother who was portrayed in myths as a jealous or evil stepmother, wife, or sister. Jayanegara from then on was known in history and memory of the people as Kala Gemet which meant “weak villain”.

Jayanegara’s stepmother, Dyah Dewi Gayatri, being the last present heir of the Singhasari dynasty, assumed the Madjapahit imperial throne as the rajapatni.

The Rise of the Tribhuanawijayatunggadewi and Mahapatih Gadjah Mada

In 1329, upon the retirement of Arya Tada, Gadjah Mada was appointed by Rajapatni Gayatri as the new mahapatih or prime minister of the empire. During his inauguration Gadjah Mada declared his Sumpah Palapa, revealing his plan to expand Madjapahit realm and building an empire.

According to the Pararaton there was a rebellion that arose in Sadeng and Keta in 1331. While Gadjah Mada was in a debate with the rakreyans, or the nobles, on who would command the army against the said rebellion, the Bhre Daha wearing the full armor of Gadjah Mada disguised as a knight named Arya Damar Abd’llah (Damar is a masculine form of an imperial title Damhara) set off alone as commander of the northern command composed of 15,000 soldiers on suppressing the rebels. She attacked from the north of Bali.

Based on the Panji Semirang the battle happened on the eve of the Bhre Daha’s wedding to Adityawarman. Accordingly, she had left a letter to Adityawarman explaining about her intension in going to battle and, according to the Rihla, she would only marry a man who could defeat her in battle. While the Nagarakretagama recounted that Adityawarman, the son of Gadjah Mada, went after the princess and led the southern command of also 15,000 soldiers which attacked from the south of Bali. They both crashed the rebellion in the north and south. Yet the Panji Semirang suggested that when the two commands had met at the center of Bali the two Aryas not knowing each other, since they were both fully covered with armors, fought with each other on the battlefield. The soldiers under their command were ordered to leave. The princess confided to her opponent that she was the bride of Adityawarman and that the disguise was assumed because of a command of the rakreyans that “she could win back her prince only in a face-to-face combat where his blood is made to flow”. And to add, it could be probable that the prince also confided to her “that his heart commands him to fight his bride and defeat her in battle in order to win her back in marriage”. The Panji Semirang continued that the two fought with swords and arrows, but the princess was unable to harm him until she resorted to her hairpin. Wounded, the rajah baginda revealed his identity and they were happily reunited. But the wedding as usual was postponed again indefinitely.

An inscription from the year 1341, at the back of a statue of Manjusri found at Candi Jago in East Java, testifies that Adityawarman accompanied Gadjah Mada on his campaigns to Bali.

In 1343, the Bhre Daha under the guise of “Arya Damar Abd’llah” became victorious in her conquest against the kingdom of Pejeng, Dalem Bedahulu, and the entire Bali by beheading the leader of the Bali Aga, Sri Aji Asura Bumibanten also known as Giri, who was said to have supernatural powers, at the Dalem Bedahulu River. In the Rihla it was stated that “a great number of her soldiers had been slain, and her whole force was on the point of running away, when the Bhre Daha rushed to the front, and forcing her way through the ranks of the combatants till she got at the king himself with whom she was at war, she dealt him a mortal wound, so that he died, and his troops fled. The princess returned with his head carried on a spear…” In the Arya Damar legends it was recounted that the said combat lasted for two days and that the leader of his enemies surrendered but the princess wrecked of how her soldiers were killed beheaded the said king. It continued that the princess as Arya Damar Abd’llah returned to Trowulan and reported what the “Kençana Tuniña” had done, Rajapatni Gayatri was very angry since the princess should not supposedly kill an enemy who had surrendered. Rajapatni Gayatri immediately sent Arya Damar Abd’llah, the princess in disguise, back to the battlefield to correct the error by returning the head of Giri to his family in exchange of a large sum of payment. When the princess still in disguise as a man arrived in Bali she was joined with Gadjah Mada who had prepared an attack against Tawing. At first there was a misunderstanding of “Arya Damar Abd’llah’s” attack before the arrival of the command but both side had defended their cause and decided to bury the hatchet so that they could defeat the last of Bali. For seven months the battle continued until the entire Bali became a subordinate to Madjapahit. When Gadjah Mada had found out the real identity of the princess in disguise he called her Arya Damar Kençana Wungu, the daughter of Prahbu Bhre Wijaya. Probably Gadjah Mada had kept secret the double identity of the princess. After the victory was won, Daha was given to Tuniña and since then she was called as the Bhre Daha while her twin sister, Dyah Sri Gitarja, was appointed as the Bhre Kahuripan. Rajapatni Gayatri retired from court to become a Bhikkhuni (a Buddhist nun) to cleanse the wrong that was done in the empire. The rajapatni appointed her twin daughters -- Dyah Sri Gitarja (Bhre Kahuripan) and Dyah Wiyat Widadari Tuniña (Bhre Daha) -- as the rani kembar (twin queens) of Madjapahit under her auspices. The three ladies formed the Madjapahit’s imperial triumvirate known as the Tribhuwanawijayatunggadewi which meant literally as “the three victorious protectors of the universe who become one goddess”.

It was during the reign of Rajadewi Dyah Wiyat (Kençana Tuniña) as Bhre Daha that the Muslim Moroccan Berber explorer Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Battuta (Arabic: أبو عبد الله محمد ابن بطوطة‎), or simply Ibn Battuta, also known as Shams ad–Din who was known for his extensive travels published in the Rihla (literally, "The Journey") visited Sumatra and Java on his way to China in 1345.

The “Tatar” junk in which Ibn Battuta was riding in cast anchored at the ancient trading port of Singosari, the former kingdom of Kertanegara who fall at the hands of the Mongols and usurpers, which is located at the mouth of the Brantas River. Not far from the port was the city of Daha (formerly known as Kediri) governed by Dyah Wiyat who assumed the position of Bhre Daha (pronounced in Malay as wahre daha; spelled in the Rihla as ج د ر ح و which when read in reverse is WHR DJ but misread as Urduja by most historians) after her brother Jayanegara assumed the imperial throne.

Ibn Battuta gave a vivid description as follows:

“They now arrived at the country of Tawalisi,71a name derived, according to Ibn Battuta, from that of its king.

It is very extensive, and the sovereign is equal of the King of China. He possesses numerous junks with which he makes war upon the Chinese until they sue for peace, and consent to grant him certain concessions. The people are idolaters; their countenances are good, and they bear a strong resemblance to the Turks. They are usually of a copper complexion, and are very valiant and warlike. The women ride, shoot, and throw the javelin well, and fight in fact just like the men. We cast anchor in one of their ports which is called Kailukari.72It is one of their greatest and finest cities, and the king’s son used to reside there. When we had entered the harbor soldiers came down to the beach, and the skipper landed to speak with them. He took a present with him for the king’s son;73 but he was told that the king74 had assigned him the government of another province, and had set over this city his daughter, called Bhre Daha.75

The second day after our arrival in the port of Kailukari72, this princess invited the Nakhodah76or skipper, the Karani or purser, the merchants and persons of note, the Tindail or chief of the sailors, the Sipahsalar or chief of the archers, to partake a banquet which the Bhre Daha had provided for them according to her hospitable custom. The skipper asked me to accompany them, but I declined, for these people are infidels and it is unlawful to partake of their food. So when the guests arrived at the Princess’s she said to them, ‘Is there anyone of your party missing?’ The captain replied, ‘There is but one man absent, the Bhikşu,77 who does not eat of your dishes.’ Bhre Daha rejoined ‘Let him be sent for.’ So a party of her guards came for me, and with them some of the captain’s people, who said to me ‘Do as the Princess desires.’

So I went, and found her seated on her great chair of throne, whilst some of her women were in front of her with papers which they were laying before her. Round about were elderly ladies, or duennas, who acted as her counselors, seated below the throne on chairs of sandalwood. The men also were in front of the Princess. The throne was covered with silk, and canopied with silk curtains, being itself made of sandal wood and plated with gold. In the audience hall there were buffets of carved wood, on which were set forth many vessels of gold of all sizes, vases, pitchers, and flagons. The skipper told me that these vessels were filled with a drink compounded with sugar and spice, which these people use after dinner; he said it had an aromatic odor and delicious flavor; that it produced hilarity, sweetened the breath, promoted digestion, etc., etc.

As soon as I had saluted the princess she said to me in the Turkish tongue ‘Husn misen yakhshi misen?’ which is as much as to say, ‘Are you well? How do you do?’ and made me sit down beside her. This princess could write the Arabic character well. She said to one of her servants, ‘Dawat wa batak katur,’78that is to say, ‘Bring inkstand and paper.’ He brought these, and then the princess wrote Bismillah Arrahman Arrahim (In the name of God the merciful and compassionate!) saying to me ‘What’s this?’ I replied ‘Tanzari nam’ which is as much as to say ‘the name of God;’ whereupon she rejoined ‘Khushn,’ or ‘It is well.’ She then asked from what country I had come, and I told her that I came from India.  The princess asked again, ‘From the Pepper country?’ I said ‘Yes.’ She proceeded to put many questions to me about India and its vicissitudes, and these I answered. She then went on, ‘I must positively go to war with that country and get possession of it, for its great wealth and great forces attract me.’ Quoth I, ‘You had better do so.’ Then the princess made me a present consisting of dresses, two elephant-loads of rice, two she-buffaloes, ten sheep, four rothls of cordial syrup, and four Martabans, or stout jars, filled with ginger, pepper, citron and mango, all prepared with salt as for a sea voyage.

The skipper told me that the Bhre Daha had in her army free women, slave girls, and female captives, who fought just like men; that she was in the habit of making incursions into the territories of her enemies, taking part in battle, and engaging in combat with warriors of repute. He also told me that on one occasion an obstinate battle took place between this princess and one of her enemies; a great number of her soldiers had been slain, and her whole force was on the point of running away, when the Bhre Daha rushed to the front, and forcing her way through the ranks of the combatants till she got at the king himself with whom she was at war, she dealt him a mortal wound, so that he died, and his troops fled. The princess returned with his head carried on a spear, and the king’s family paid a vast sum to redeem it. And when the princess rejoined her father he gave her this city of Kailukari,79which her brother had previously governed. I heard likewise from the same skipper that various sons of kings had sought the Bhre Daha’s hand, but she always answered, ‘I will marry no one but him who shall fight and conquer me!’ so they all avoided the trial, for fear of the same of the shame of being beaten by her.”80

In November 1346, upon the return of Adityawarman to Java from his expedition to China, Dara Jingga had wished to return home at Dharmasraya. Her wish was granted and upon her return to Sumatra with the junk captained by Adityawarman, her son, she was accompanied by her husband Gadjah Mada and the Bhre Daha (Rajadewi Dyah Wiyat), the bride of Adityawarman.

In the New Year’s Day of 1347, the Bhre Daha was married to Adityawarman. The wedding ceremony was witnessed by Ibn Battuta who was with the same junk.

Ibn Battuta described the said wedding ceremony as follows:

“I remarked that they had set up in the middle of the palace yard a great seat of state, covered with silk stuffs. The bride arrived, coming from the inner apartments of the palace, on foot and with her face exposed so that the whole company could see her, gentle and simple alike… The bride proceeded to the seat of state, the minstrels, male and female, going before her, playing and singing. Then came the bridegroom on a caparisoned elephant, which carried on its back a sort of throne, surmounted by a canopy like an umbrella. The bridegroom wore a crown on his head; right and left of him were about a hundred young men, of royal and noble blood, clothed in white, mounted on caparisoned horses, and wearing on their heads caps adorned with gold and gems. They were of the same age as the bridegroom, and all beardless.

From the time when the bridegroom entered, pieces of gold and silver were scattered among the people. The sultan was seated aloft where he could see all that passed. His son got down from the elephant, went to kiss his father’s foot, and then mounted on the seat of state beside his bride. They then brought pawn and betel-nut; the bridegroom took them in his hand and put them into the bride’s mouth, and she did the same by him. Next he put a pawn-leaf first into his own mouth and then into hers, and she did in like manner. They then put a veil over the bride, and removed the seat of state into the interior of the palace, whilst the young couple were still upon it; the company took refreshments and separated. Next day the sultan called the people together, and named his son as his successor on the throne. They took an oath of obedience to him, and the future sovereign distributed numerous presents in money and dresses.”81

By then one of the ruler’s primary tasks which was the promotion of fertility through the provision of water by means of maintaining order and engaging in sexual intercourse had been fulfilled:

She who is the living image of the daughter of the Lord of the mountains, and whose body was created by Lokesha, Kasheva and Mahesvara, to be embraced by the king, the Lord of Java, to increase the prosperity of mankind to everyone’s delight. 82

Adityawarman was installed by his father as the king of Malayapura (Sumatra) to prevent the revival of Şrivijaya and to maintain the unity of Madjapahit. In the Babad the prince had stated:

“Now my prayer to Allah has been fulfilled, my prayer to succeed my father the sultan as king, as the light of Java, and to have my sons and grandchildren inherit it. All the people of Java will submit.” 83

He later conquered Tanah Datar to take control of the gold trade and founded a kingdom in Pagar Ruyung known as Kerajaan Pagaruyung in Minangkabau and sculpted another statue of Amoghapasa. He was taking his role as Uparaja from Madjapahit and conquered vital areas in Sumatra like Kuntu and Kampar which were famous for their pepper.

The Death of Rajapatni Gayatri and the Rise of Hayam Wuruk

During the Tribhuanawijayatunggadewi’s rule, the Madjapahit kingdom grew much larger and became famous in the area. But around May 1349, the Rajapatni Dyah Dewi Gayatri died of old age. She was given a Catholic blessing by Giovannie de’ Marignolli, a notable traveller to the Far East in the fourteenth century, who was visiting Madjapahit at that time.84 Hence, in 1350, the rani kembar abdicated the throne in favor of Hayam Wuruk, Rajadewi Dyah Wiyat’s adopted son under the guardianship of Dyah Sri Gitarja. Gadjah Mada remained the Mahapatih and stood as the regent for the 16-year old Hayam Wuruk. But it was really Gadjah Mada who was the actual ruler of Madjapahit from 1328 until his death in 1357.

Hayam Wuruk, also known as Rajasanagara, ruled Madjapahit in AD 1350–1389. During this period, Madjapahit attained its peak with the help of its prime minister, Gadjah Mada. Under Gadjah Mada's command (AD 1313–1357), Madjapahit conquered more territories and become the regional power. According to the book of Nagarakertagama pupuh (canto) XIII and XIV mentioned several states in Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara islands, Maluku, New Guinea, and some parts of Philippine Islands as under Madjapahit realm of power. This source mentioned of Madjapahit expansions has marked the greatest extent of Madjapahit Empire.

The Battle of Bubat and the Fall of Gadjah Mada

Next to launching naval and military expeditions, the expansion of Madjapahit Empire also involved diplomacy and alliance. Hayam Wuruk decided, probably for political reasons, to take Princess Citra Rashmi (Dyah Pitaloka) of neighboring Sunda Kingdom as his consort.85 Tradition describes her as a girl of extraordinary beauty. Patih Madhu, a matchmaker from Madjapahit was sent to the kingdom to ask for her hand in royal marriage. Delighted by the proposal and seeing the opportunity to foster an alliance with Madjapahit, the mightiest kingdom in the region, the king of Sunda gave his blessing and decided to accompany his daughter to Madjapahit for the wedding.

In 1357 the Sunda king and the royal family arrived in Madjapahit after sailing across the Java Sea by Jung Sasana ships, then encamped on Bubat square in the northern part of Trowulan, capital city of Majapahit, and awaited the wedding ceremony.However Gadjah Mada, the Madjapahit prime minister saw the event as an opportunity to demand Sunda's submission to Madjapahit's overlordship, and insisted that instead of becoming queen of Madjapahit, the princess was to be presented as a token of submission and treated as a mere concubine of the Madjapahit king. The Sunda king was angered and humiliated by Gadjah Mada's demand.

As a result, a skirmish took place on Bubat square between the Madjapahit army and the Sunda royal family in defense of their honor. It was uneven and unfair match, since the Sundanese party was only composed mostly of royal family, state officials and nobles, accompanied with servants and royal guards. The number of Sundanese party was estimated to be less than a hundred, some source mentioned 97 people. On the other hand, the armed guards stationed within Madjapahit capital city under Gadjah Mada commands are estimated numbered several thousand personnel of well armed and well trained troops. The Sundanese party was surrounded at the center of the Bubat square. Some source mentioned that the Sundanese had managed to defend the square and had strike back the Madjapahit siege for several times. However as the day went on the Sundanese resistance had been exhausted and overwhelmed. Despite facing the certain death, the Sundanese demonstrated extraordinary courage and chivalry as they fell one by one.

Despite courageous resistance, the royal family was overwhelmed and decimated by the Madjapahit army. The Sunda king died in a duel with a Madjapahit general, probably not really Gadjah Mada at this time since he was very old to fight but the Bhre Daha disguised as him, as well as other Sundanese nobles with almost all of the Sundanese royal party massacred in the tragedy.86 Tradition mentions that the heartbroken Princess with all of remaining Sundanese women including her mother took their own lives to defend their country’s honor and pride.87 The ritualized suicide by the women of Kşatriya (warrior) class after the defeat of their men is expected to defend their pride and honor as well as to protect their chastity, rather than facing possibility of humiliation through rape, subjugation or slavery. The Battle of Bubat or Pasunda Bubat tragedy became the main theme of Kidung Sunda, also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan and Pararaton; however it was never mentioned in Nagarakretagama.

Hayam Wuruk, who had just come from his religious studies on Hinduism at Mt. Merbabu in central Java, was deeply shocked about the tragedy. According to tradition, Dyah Pitaloka's death was mourned by Hayam Wuruk and the entire population of the Sunda kingdom who had lost most members of their royal family. Later king Hayam Wuruk married to Paduka Sori, his own cousin instead. Pitaloka's deed and her father's courage are revered as noble acts of honor, courage and dignity in Sundanese tradition. Her father, Prabu Maharaja Lingga Buana was revered by the Sundanese as Prabu Wangi (Sundanese: king with pleasant fragrance) because of his heroic act to defend his honor against Madjapahit. His descendants, the later kings of Sunda, were called Siliwangi (Sundanese: successor of Wangi).

This tragedy severely harmed the relationship between the two kingdoms and resulted in hostility for years to come, the situation never again returning to normality. Prince Niskalawastu Kançana, Dyah Pitaloka's younger brother, was the sole surviving heir of the Sunda King since he was still an infant at that time and was left at the Kawali Palace in the Sunda Galuh capital city. When he ascended to the throne he cut the diplomatic relations between Sunda and Madjapahit and issued an edict, known as Larangan Estri ti Luaran, which forbade the Sundanese people to marry a Javanese. This was a reflection of the Sundanese disappointment and anger towards Madjapahit which later contributed to the Sundanese-Javanese animosity, the sentiments that even may still runs to present day.

Curiously, although Bali is known as the heiress of Madjapahit’s culture, Balinese opinion seems to take the Sundanese side in this dispute, as evident in their manuscript Kidung Sunda. The Balinese reverence and admiration to the Sundanese heroic act by courageously facing certain death was probably in accordance with Hindu code of honor of Kşatriya caste – that is, the ultimate and perfect death of a Kşatriya is on the edge of sword and to die on the battlefield. The practice of demonstrating the act of courage has its Balinese counterpart in their puputan tradition, a fight to the death by men and followed by mass ritual suicide by the women in preference to facing the humiliation of surrender.

The Banishment of the Bhre Daha

“Gadjah Mada” faced opposition, distrust and sneering at the Majapahit court because of “his” recklessness and all the brutalities which was not to the taste of the Madjapahit nobles and undermined king Hayam Wuruk's influence. This unfortunate event also marked the end of “Gadjah Mada's” career, since not long after this event the emperor forced “Gadjah Mada” to an early retirement through awarding the prime minister the lands in Madakaripura (today Probolinggo), in eastern Java, thus exiled “him” far from capital city’s courtly affairs. However, there were hints in other Javanese manuscripts & legends that Gadjah Mada being wounded by Dyah Pitaloka really died at the Battle of Bubat. It was Rajadewi Dyah Wiyat, the Bhre Daha, disguised as Gadjah Mada by wearing the latter’s full golden armor, who had returned to Trowulan as Gadjah Mada probably to save the empire from falling apart by knowing that the Madjapahit’s symbol of strength and power had been wounded by a woman and died in her hand. If this supposition is correct then the real reason of the Battle of Bubat was the death of Gadjah Mada at the hand of the Sundanese princess. And it was the Bhre Daha, keeping the secret of Gadjah Mada’s death, who was vanished to the forest by Hayam Wuruk and the royal council. In Panji legends Gadjah Mada is known as Prabu Cakrabuwana.

In the Panji and Nyai Roro Kidul legends, the Bhre Daha was found by a widow named Mbok Rondo, believed to be the putri darawati who had chosen to guard the temple of Tara and lived on fishing snails and shells, lying unconscious by the sea after trying to swim across the sea towards Sumatra in her despiration. Later on the said widow found out that she was the Bhre Daha, her granddaughter in disguise.

During the reign of Hayam Wuruk, Madjapahit attained its golden age, Majapahit’s hegemony was maintained, although he stood alone without the company of Gadjah Mada.

The increasing activities in commerce and navigation in the Majapahit brought the foreign merchants to come and probably stayed permanently in the city of Madjapahit.  Cultural contacts between the foreign merchants and the inhabitants of Madjapahit increased with the result to create multi-culture in Madjapahit.

According to the Nagarakertagama and other Old-Javanese texts, Hayam Wuruk was able to manage the cultural diversity in his kingdom.  He was doing routine journey through his realm, pursued every year after the rainy season. According to Mpu Prapanca in his book Nagarakertagama, the exact route was changed every year, in the end the king will have seen his whole realm. Prapanca who joined the expeditions explained many things he saw during his journey. He wrote that Hayam Wuruk visited all kind of temples and the sacred places to pay homage to gods and ancestors, also talking or discuss many religious problems with the temples’ superintendents. He also made a sympathetic dialoque with his people, joined the ceremonial activities, by singing, dancing and poetry-reading. 

In 1362, two years before the Nagarakertagama was written, Adityawarman, who according to some legends had been converted to Islam, and secretly professed his new religion, came to search for his “vanished” father and his lost wife in the forest of Kendawahana, which was believed to be inhabited by the spirits of the dead rulers of Java who became white tigers. According to a famous legend the princess was attacked by a white tiger when Adityawarman arrived. The putri darawati asked help to save her “daughter”. Immediately, Adityawarman with his men fought the white tiger and killed it. In Islamic legends he had killed the white tiger by a prayer to Allah which caused a storm and uprooted a tree which fell on the beast. Hence, he was also nicknamed as Prahbu Si Gentar Alam which means “the king who could move nature” since accordingly he was so powerful that when he was angry and stamped his feet the earth would shake. Adityawarman found out the “daughter” of the old woman was his lost wife. It was then that Adityawarman had found out that his father had long been dead. He took his wife back to Daha along with the widow who according to traditions was converted to Islam.

The return of the Bhre Daha was celebrated with utmost importance by Hayam Wuruk. It was on that occasion that Paduka Sori Parameswari, the daughter of Adityawarman (Bhre Wengkir) and Rajadewi Maharajasa (Bhre Daha) was given in marriage to Hayam Wuruk. After the wedding, a sraddha funerary ceremony for the Rajapatni Gayatri, Hayam Wuruk’s grandmother was held. A statue of Rajapatni Gayatri as the goddess Prajnaparamita (also the name of her twin sister) was erected in her honor. The ceremony was done by the Buddhist and Saivite clergymen in the same courtyard where the ceremony was performed. The caturdwija (rsi-saiwa-sogata-mahabrahmana) were invited to join the ceremony. During the ceremony, lion thrones were erected, where priests placed a flower effigy (puspa) symbolizing the soul of the Queen Grandmother.

In the canto 63, stanza 4, Prapanca narrated the preparation of the ceremony by the court artisans:

“All the multitude of the artisans there, making plaited bamboo-work, fashioning the sthana singha (lion-throne) in the wanguntur (main court-yard), setting aside those who carved wawans (carriers) for food, bukubukuran (all kinds of tower-like structures) and figures and things of that kind. Took part also the smiths of dadaps (embossed coverings) of gold and silver, all of them bestirring themselves the more in their respective customary occupations.”

The descent of the soul to earth and its final placement in the puspa were narrated in canto 64, stanza 5:

“At the waxing moon, on the twelfth night, they invited there that swah (soul), sutra (sacred texts) recital was performed and homa (fire offering) worship, on the other hand also parίshrama (amphidromy); they were (only considered) complete at the arrival of the swah (soul) again (on earth). The honoured holy puspa (flower effigy) was worked on with yoga (concentration); in the night was performed the eminent pratistha (placing) ceremony.”

The ceremony lasted for seven days. Colorful pageants crowded the main courtyard. The whole ceremony was performed to please the Rajapatni's soul in hopes that her favor would shine on the reign of her descendants. The posthumous ceremony continued and the king ordered the repair of the Kamal Pundak sanctuary to enact a new holy shrine (candi) for the Queen Grandmother, deified as the Prajnaparamita.

The Queen Grandmother Rajapatni had a special place in Prapança's poem. In one stance, the poem describes the Queen Grandmother as chattra ning rat wisesa (the eminent protector of the world). Rajapatni was the progenitor of the Madjapahit kingdom, because she was the daughter of Kertanegara, the last king of the Singhasari kingdom, and she was also the wife of Raden Wijaya, the founder of Madjapahit. Thus she was seen as the protector of the world. The Queen Grandmother is said in the poem to embody the Pramabhagavati; Bhagavati is another name of Prajnaparamita (the Goddess of Wisdom in Mahayana).

Miranda Shaw in her book, Buddhist Goddesses of India, pp. 166-167, describes the goddess Prajnaparamita as follows:

“In the foundational body of Mahayana literature known as the Prajnaparamita or Perfection of Wisdom texts, the highest metaphysical principle, the energy, glory, and radiance of enlightened wisdom — is envisioned as a cosmic female, the mother of knowledge, the source of all Buddhas. This goddess, known as Prajnaparamita, is regarded as the “mother” of all beings who attain enlightenment, for it is her wisdom that engenders liberation. She is the supreme teacher and eternal font of revelation. All who seek illumination must sit at her feet and drink from the stream of teachings that flow from her presence. Thus, Prajnaparamita is the ultimate source of refuge and object of reverence, for only those who prize wisdom above all else may attain it. Even Buddhas and bodhisattvas pay homage to her, because to her they owe their omniscience. To worship a Buddha, the relics of a Buddha, or a stupa is to honor what she has brought into being; to revere her directly is to worship the source.

Just as philosophy is the queen of the sciences, Prajnaparamita is the philosophiae regina, the Buddhist Sophia, a dazzling figure who represents the transcendent wisdom that crowns the intellectual and spiritual quest. In the wake of the contending schools of Abhidharma philosophy, mother Prajnaparamita arose to cast her serene, clear sighted gaze of nondual wisdom over all disputants. Her luminous, golden persona draws her devotees away from worldly attachments and into the encompassing splendor of her mystical mother light.

Prajnaparamita shares her name with the literature in which she appears, the philosophy with which she is associated, and the knowledge she personifies. The text that introduces the philosophy and the goddess, the Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra, or 8000-Line Perfect Wisdom Scripture…. Although the work advances a systematic philosophical viewpoint, its language is redolent with poesy, devotion, and emotional fervor as it celebrates the goddess and her namesake wisdom.”

Hayam Wuruk is said to have regularly made sacred journeys to the south coast probably searching for his “aunt” and foster mother, the Bhre Daha.88 Believing that the Bhre Daha was dead, Hayam Wuruk had also erected a statue of her as the goddess Camunda, another attribute of the Hindu war-goddess Durga after killing the demon kings Chanda and Munda. Since then, the Bhre Daha was also known in legends and genealogies as Ki Syama which means “the general who is an incarnation of Durga as a warrior”. In Sejarah Melayu she was known as Kençana Kesuma, the “daughter” (actually daughter-in-law) of Gadjah Mada while in the Silsilah Raja-raja Sulu she was known as Puteri Ratna Kesuma, the “daughter” (actually foster daughter) of the Chinese general Ong Sum Ping (Wong Wang Ping) who according to Chinese and Bornean legends was sent together with his brother Ong Sum Kang (Wong Wang Kong), another Chinese general, by Kublai Khan to search for the “pearl of the dragon”, called in Sabah as “butiza” and in Cebu as ”trabungko or karbungko sa bakunawa” or “mutya sa alimpo’os”, in the mountains of the “islands”.

According to the record of the Silsilah Raja-raja Sulu, when Ong Sum Ping first arrived at Brunei with many Chinese, he said that he was ordered to collect a “pearl of the dragon” in Sabah, and the mountain was named Mt. Kinabalu. Ong Sum Ping was actually a corruption of the Chinese word “chung ping” which means “general”. In legends the said Ong Sum Ping used his knowledge as his weapon while his brother Ong Sum Kang used his excellent skills in martial arts, the pança silat. Hence, the Bhre Daha might have acquired her wisdom and remarkable skills in martial arts from her foster parents. Brunei (Berune) at that time was a vassal state of the Madjapahit Empire as indicated in the book of Nagarakertagama, canto 14, written by Prapanca in 1365.

The Nagarakertagama depicts a sophisticated court with refined taste in art and literature, and a complex system of religious rituals. The poet describes Madjapahit as the centre of a huge mandala extending from New Guinea and Maluku to Sumatra and Malay Peninsula. Local traditions in many parts of Indonesia retain accounts in more or less legendary form from 14th century Madjapahit's power. Madjapahit's direct administration did not extend beyond east Java and Bali, but challenges to Madjapahit's claim to overlordship in outer islands drew forceful responses.89

According to some accounts, around 1364, after the death of the Chamese Queen, the wife of Kertanegara, and her burial, the Bhre Daha had sailed with her husband Adityawarman to Sumatra and stayed long in Palembang.

Around 1366, Sang Nila Utama was confirmed as ruler over Temasek by an envoy of the Chinese Emperor.

In the latter half of the 14th century the Madjapahit Empire had sent several trade missions to China. It was on those trade missions that the name Lusung (Luzon) first appeared in Chinese History in 1373 in the Ming Annals. In this document, Lusung was one of the first to answer the call for tribute missions to the new Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). It was Brunei that first responded in 1371, followed by Liuchiu in 1372, and then by Lusung in 1373.

Despite the fact that it made its first appearance on Chinese records as late as 1373, evidences suggests that the Chinese had long known the existence of Luzon as far back as the Sung Dynasty (960 - 1278). The presence of thousands of recognizable pieces of Sung and Yuan Dynasty porcelains found in ancient burial sites in the Province of Pampanga and Manila suggests an active trade with China long before the Ming period.

In 1374, Hayam Wuruk (known as Ananggavarman in Sumatran inscriptions) visited Sumatra. He was informed that Kerajaan Pagaruyung had sent delegates to Tiongkok. It sounded that Aditywarman was trying to secede himself from Madjapahit, extricate from its control, and establish his own empire called Swarnabhumi (“land of gold”), probably a blue-print of a master plan in reviving the Singhasari Empire or the Şailendra dynasty.

Thus the following year, in 1375, he sent an expedition to destroy the kingdom of Adityawarman, his father-in-law. A terrifying battle ensued between Adityawarman and the Madjapahit army in Padang Sibusuk. Based on the Sumatran inscriptions, found in the statue of Adityawarman as Lokitesvara (which was built by his Buddhist followers), merry-making followed with “wines and flowers”.

The Ming Annals record the fact that in 1377 the ruler of Melayu (the general name for Sumatra at this period), the Maharajah (i.e., Adityawarman) obtained China's recognition of his old title "King of San-fo-t'si" (Şrivijaya) even though San-fot'si had already been captured by Java. 90 Upon hearing of China's commentary Hayam Wuruk retaliated by executing the Chinese envoys, without any comment from China. He then sent another punitive naval attack against a rebellion in Palembang91, contributing to the end of the Şrivijayan kingdom. The rebellion was squashed by Madjapahit but it left the area of southern Sumatra in chaos and desolation. It could be presumed that Adityawarman was killed during the said attack. While the Bhre Daha had returned to Mindanao and her three sons became the ancestors of the rulers of Sulu and Brunei and was believed to be the ancestress of the Walisongo.

The nature of the Madjapahit Empire and its extent is subject to debate. It may have had limited or entirely notional influence over some of the tributary states which included Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan and eastern Indonesia over which of authority was claimed in the Nagarakertagama.92 Geographical and economic constraints suggest that rather than a regular centralized authority, the outer states were most likely to have been connected mainly by trade connections, which was probably a royal monopoly.89 It also claimed relationships with Champa, Cambodia, Siam, southern Burma, and Vietnam, and even sent missions to China. 93

Although the Madjapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighboring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the archipelago. About the time Madjapahit was founded, Muslim traders and proselytizers began entering the area.

The Death of Hayam Wuruk

In 1389, Hayam Wuruk died. His death was said to be accompanied by civil wars and natural calamities -- volcanic eruptions and typhoons. His ashes was said to be buried at the Bojong Ratu temple in Trowulan area where seldom visited by man with position since it is local belief that if a person with certain standing visits it he will loose his position. Hayam Wuruk was succeeded by the crown princess Kusumawardhani, who married a relative, Prince Wikramawardhana. Hayam Wuruk also had a son from his previous marriage, crown prince Wirabhumi, who also claimed the throne. Following Hayam Wuruk's death, Madjapahit power entered a period of decline with conflict over succession started by Bhre Wirabhumi, Hayam Wuruk’s son from a concubine. He already had received the region of Blambangan called “the eastern court”, but he was dissatisfied and conflict occurred between Bhre Wirabhumi against his cousin Wikramawarddhana from the western court.  This war for the struggle of the throne is known as perang paregreg, ending with the defeat of Bhre Wirabhumi. Furthermore, even though Bhre Wirabhumi was killed, this family conflict was not over yet, and the accident of Bhre Wirabhumi’s death even became the seed of continuous family vengeance and dispute, until the sixteenth century. Malacca began to challenge the power of Madjapahit over the MaIay Peninsula and the rest of Java. Islamic activity from Malacca was also beginning to penetrate the island of Java, and it would eventually replace Brahmanism. 94 As time passed, the various Hindu religious cults sought refuge in the hills, eventually confining themselves to Bali and, as the Javanese chronicles say, "the prosperity of the island vanished".95

The Disintegration of the Empire and the Rise of the Sultanates

In 1401, Sang Nila Utama’s great grandson, Dharmaraja (Desia Raja) who after succeeding his father to the throne his name was officially styled as Paduka Sri Maharaja Parameswara was expelled from Temasek by a Madjapahit invasion. He later headed north and founded Malacca in 1402.96 At that time Brunei was a vassal to Malacca.

In 1403, the first official Chinese trade envoy lead by Admiral Yǐn Qìng 尹慶 (Wade-Giles:Yin Ch'ing) arrived in Malacca.

In 1404 with the arrival of Maulana Malik Ibrahim As-Samarkandy (also known as Kakek Bantal, Syeikh Maghribi, and Sunan Gresik), an Uzbek who was born in Samarkand, a descendant of Ahmad al-Muhajir -- a Hadhramaut saint who migrated from Basra (now in Iraq) to Yemen to avoid strife during the Abbasid Caliphate -- the spread of Islam had spread to Java, though there were already existing Muslims in Java during the reign of Hayam Wuruk (even he was suspected to be a Muslim convert since his tomb was surrounded by Muslim tombs within his complex). Prior to his arrival to Java he had lived in Champa for 13 years from 1379 until 1392. Within that period, he married the princess of Champa and begot two sons from her, namely Raden Abdul Rahman (also Rahmat, Rakhmat, Mamat, and Mahmud) and Raden Abu Bakr Santri. Maulana Malik Ibrahim As-Samarkandy engaged in small business by opening a small shop selling sundries and treated sick people in the community. He founded the first Islamic school or pesantren in Java. He taught people of new techniques in agriculture and accepted people of lower castes outcasted by Hinduism.

In 1405, Paduka Sri Maharaja Parameswara visited China. He was known at that time to have attained sainthood in Islam so in order to test his wisdom the Chinese emperor asked him whether her daughter’s confession that she was pregnant  was true or not. When Parameswara answered that princess was pregnant the emperor laughed; declaring the Parameswara was not a true maulana and denouncing him a liar asked him to leave China immediately. But later on that year, the emperor had found out that her daughter was pregnant. He told his daughter to surrender herself to the maulana. Beforehand the emperor had sponsored for a treasure fleet not only to find for treasures or get tributes as far as Syria but also to seek out Zhu Yunwen or Jianwen -- the previous emperor whom Zhu Di, crowned as Yongle Emperor, had usurped and who was rumored to have fled into exile – possibly the "largest scale manhunt on water in the history of China". The Yongle Emperor called out Ma He, the court’s Eunuch Grand Director (太監, taijian), who after promoting the latter into the Chief Envoy (正使, zheng shi) – he was later popularly known as Zheng He (Admiral He), the great great great grandson of Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, a Persian who served in the administration of the Mongolian Empire and was appointed governor of Yunnan during the early Yuan Dynasty. -- ordered him to dispatch the treasure fleet at night to avoid detection with his daughter so nobody would know. The “Yongle-poh” (which means literally as “Yongle’s precious treasure” which was referring to his daughter) was to be sent, at night to avoid detection, to the Parameswara for marriage to save her from disgrace.

Traditional and popular accounts of Zheng He's voyages have described a great fleet of gigantic ships, far larger than any other wooden ships in history. Some modern scholars consider these descriptions to be exaggerated. Chinese records assert that Zheng He's fleet sailed as far as East Africa. According to medieval Chinese sources, Zheng He commanded seven expeditions. The 1405 expedition consisted of 27,800 men and a fleet of 62 treasure ships supported by approximately 190 smaller ships. The fleet included:

  • Treasure ships (Chinese:宝船), used by the commander of the fleet and his deputies (nine-masted, about 126.73 metres (416 ft) long and 51.84 meters (170 ft) wide), according to later writers. This is more or less the size and shape of a football field.

  • Equine ships (Chinese:馬船), carrying horses and tribute goods and repair material for the fleet (eight-masted, about 103 m (339 ft) long and 42 m (138 ft) wide).

  • Supply ships (Chinese:粮船), containing staple for the crew (seven-masted, about 78 m (257 ft) long and 35 m (115 ft) wide).

  • Troop transports (Chinese:兵船), six-masted, about 67 m (220 ft) long and 25 m (83 ft) wide.

  • Fuchuan warships (Chinese:福船), five-misted, about 50 m (165 ft) long.

  • Patrol boats (Chinese:坐船), eight-oared, about 37 m (120 ft) long.

  • Water tankers (Chinese:水船), with 1 month's supply of fresh water.

Parameswara married the Chinese princess while the sister of Parameswara who was the princess of Brunei was married to Zheng He who was known there in his royal nickname – “San Bao” (三寶/三宝, or 三保) which means “three jewels” or to the Indians as “Sinbad” who later when he had his hajj in Mecca was known in Brunei as Ahmad after his Muslim name Hajji Mahmud Shamsuddin (Persian: حاجی محمود شمس الدين).

The said series of the Ming armada naval expeditions with a total of seven voyages which was led by Zheng He – the China-born Persian mariner, explorer, diplomat and fleet admiral, who commanded voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Africa – had only arrived in Java during its second voyage in 1407 and a span of visits which lasted until its the seventh voyage in 1433 since there was a civil war, called Paregreg, in Java from 1405 to 1406,97 of which Wikramawardhana was victorious and Wirabhumi was caught and decapitated. The said civil war had weakened Madjapahit grip on its outer vassals and colonies.

In 1409, Parameswara married the princess of Pasai and established the Sultanate of Malacca. The Sultanate of Malacca succeeded Şrivijaya Empire as a Malay political entity of the archipelago. 98

In 1411, at the end of the third voyage of Zheng He, Zheng He and his treasure fleet escorted Parameswara and his wife, the “Yongle-poh”, together with 540 officials from Malacca who sailed to China to pay homage to the Yongle Emperor with a tribute which included agate, carnelian, pearl, hawksbill, coral, crane beak, golden female crane beak, suit, white cloth, Western fabric, Sa-ha-la, rhino horn, ivory, black bear, black ape, white muntjac, turkey, parrot, pian-nao, rosebush dew, su-he oil, gardenia flower, wu-ye-ni, aromatic wood, incense sticks, gold silver incense sticks. Upon arrival in China, a grand welcome ceremony was done along with animal-sacrifice. The historical meeting between Parameswara and the Yongle Emperor was recorded accurately in the Ming chronicle.

The Geoff Wade translations:

“You, king (Parameswara), travelled tens of thousands of li across the ocean to the capital, confidently and without anxiety, as your loyalty and sincerity assured you of the protection of the spirits. I (the Yongle Emperor) have been glad to meet with you, king, and feel that you should stay. However, your people are longing for you and it is appropriate that you return to soothe them. The weather is getting colder and the winds are suited for sailing south. It is the right time. You should eat well on your journey and look after yourself, so as to reflect my feelings of concern for you. Now I am conferring upon you, king, a gold and jade belt, ceremonial insignia, two "saddled horses", 100 liang of gold, 500 liang of silver, 400,000 guan of paper money, 2,600 guan of copper cash, 300 bolts of embroidered fine silks and silk gauzes, 1,000 bolts of thin silks ...” 99

In 1414, Parameswara was reported dead by his son at the Chinese emperor’s court. 100

Wikramawardhana ruled to 1426 and was succeeded by his daughter Suhita, who ruled from 1426 to 1447. She was the second child of Wikramawardhana by a concubine who was the daughter of Wirabhumi. 101

The Majapahit kingdom in the mid-15th century was divided into nine provinces: Trowulan (the capital), Daha, Balambangan (also spelled Blambangan), Matahun, Tumapel, Kahuripan, Lasem, Wengker, and Pajang.

It was during this period that the spread of Islam in Java became inevitable which eventually extended to other areas in Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia, and the southern Philippines.

By 1430 Zheng He's expeditions has established Muslim Chinese and Arab communities in northern ports of Java such as in Semarang, Demak, Tuban, and Ampel, thus Islam began to gain foothold on Java's northern coast.102 It was during this period between 1430-1433 that Zheng He ordered his men and Muslim local officials to “Javanize” or assimilate into the culture of Java103 like adopting their culture and transliterating their names into Javanese to hide their Persian and Chinese identities so that they would be accepted by the people more easily and the spread of Islam would run smoothly. Within this period, an Egyptian, Syeikh Maulana Idhofi, arrived in Java from his trip in Baghdad and settled in Sayid Kamil where he was called by the local villagers as Syeik Datu Khafi. At first, he used the area for meditation until he began to preach Islam. 104 It was also during this year that Parameswara who had been converted to Islam and had become a syeik and assumed the name Mansur Shah preached Islam in Tidor.

In 1443, according to Cirebon account, a fleet of three Arab ships had arrived in Java. A group of Arab immigrants who were called as the “Bani Israil of Mesir (Egypt)” led by Raden Abdul Rahman (Syeikh Maulana Mas Huda Ishaq ul-Hashim) -- who had followed his cousin, Syeikh Maulana Idhofi, together with his sister, Siti Baghdad (it means “widow queen of Baghdad”), and his brother, Raden Abu Bakr Santri (Syeikh Abdul Ibrahim Maulana Sharif ul-Hashim) – who after a royal protocol visit had settled separately in Sembung, Muara Jati, Junti and Japura.105 This “Bani Israil of Mesir” or “Israelite Tribe of Egypt” must not really be Egyptians but it could be the “lost tribe of Israel” that had migrated from Egypt and Persia to Southeast Asia. Interestingly enough, it could mean that the Malay race was actually the lost tribe of Israel. It could be very probable that the said migrants especially the nobles and merchants who could afford to sail to other lands had gone to Arabia to escape the plague that hit Egypt for almost the entire 15th century but began to migrate to Southeast Asia in the late 15th century from Arabia since the Ottoman Turks had started to conquer the lands previously dominated by the Persians especially Baghdad which is the second largest city of the Arab world in comparison with Cairo.

The foreign policy of Suhita in allowing the Muslim migrants to live in Java and freely spread Islam set discontentment among her Hindu followers which slowly weakened the empire.

In 1447, Suhita died and was succeeded by Kertawijaya, her brother.97 In that year, Raden Abdul Rahman was given authority over Ampel region by his uncle, Kertawijaya. At that time Ampel region has about 30,000 inhabitants. Ampel was located next to the main port of the kingdom, Jenggala Manik, which made it a strategic place to spread Islam with aid from the Moslem merchants in Java. These merchants had already made small communities along the northern coast of Java since the 11th century.

In 1451, Kertawijaya was assassinated by a certain Rajasawardhana. Rajasawardhana who was the Bhre of Keling, Pamotan, and Kahuripan became king but it seems that he was not recognized by the empire; his domain was only over the three districts already mentioned. It is very probable that this Rajasawardhana who was not in the Madjapahit bloodline was Raden Abu Bakr himself for at that time he was the Bhre Keling according to Cirebon account. There is a Bornean tradition somewhere which relates that Raden Abu Bakr who after intoxicating or poisoning his uncle killed him with a kris and usurped the throne. But in other account the deed was done through the advice of his Chamese aunt. Raden Abu Bakr was a nephew-in-law of Kertawijaya since his mother and the wife of Kertawijaya were sisters and both were Muslim princesses from Champa. He was also a member of the Bhayangkara Ishlah. Bhayangkara Ishlah was actually an octogenarian organization -- composed of the Arabs, Egyptians, Persians, Israelites, and Chinese migrants -- which aimed to spread Islam in the islands by creating family ties with the nobles through marrying their daughters and through assimilating teachings to local culture and beliefs. From this principle, Raden Abu Bakr, in 1452, married the Hindu princess of Balambangan named Sekardadu Dewi, daughter of Prabu Sembuyu Menak Balambangan (Sadmuddha).

In 1453, when Constantinople fell on the hands of the Ottoman Turks and Sekardadu Dewi was already pregnant a plague had infested the land. Abu Bakr had also troubles with the nobles of Daha when he tried to build a mosque there. One of the officers of the king accused Raden Abu Bakr and his companions to have brought the plague from Egypt. And more local Hindus blamed this with the construction of mosques. In Pajang, Syeikh Suta Maharaja's base was attacked by the army of Prabu Andayaningrat from Pengging, who did not like the growth of Islam in that area. Syeikh Suta Maharaja escaped to Demak and died there.106 The Hindus believed that they were cursed by the goddess Durga. The Hindus revolted. A battle ensued. Raden Abu Bakr had to flee leaving his wife behind. Soon, Sekardadu Dewi had given birth to a son. But her father had ordered that her baby must be killed for the people of Balambangan believed that it was the new-born babe who had brought the curse of plague in Java. To keep her son safe, Sekardadu Dewi set him adrift on a wooden box to the strait of Bali. The baby was seen by the sailors floating on the Indian Ocean near Sumatra. He was rescued and brought to the Madjapahit princess, Dewi Candrawati, the owner of the ship. Dewi Candrawati was also known in other accounts as Dewi Condrowati, Dayang Merah Wati (“Red Pious Princess”), Dang Merduwati, Ratu Dwarawati, Ratu Anarawati, Nyi Gede Manila, Nyai Ageng Maloka, Nyai Gede Maloka, Nyai Pinatih Gede, Nyai Ageng Tandesor simply Nyai Ageng.  She was a daughter of Zheng He (known in Java as Gan Eng Cu) who had married a Madjapahit princess during his last voyage in 1430. Dewi Candrawati gladly adopted the child and named him “Joko Samudra” for he was “raised up from the river-ocean”. Raden Abdul Rahman probably saw the opportunity to marry a princess who had “raised a son of the river-ocean” who needed a father. During that year Raden Abdul Rahman and Dewi Candrawati were married and the boy who was named by Raden Abdul Rahman as Raden Abdul Faqih Ainul Yaqin was taken to Gresik.107

As Raden Abu Bakr was ousted, the Madjapahit throne was left kingless and the minor kingdoms were struggling for succession which ended to a three-year civil war. If the Cirebon account would be considered, it must be understood that Raden Abu Bakr had gone to Mecca for a pilgrimage which was not only a dream for every Muslim to do the hajj but it was also part of the celebration of the Muslim world at that time over the fall of Constantinople to the Muslims and sooner would lead to the capture of Jerusalem. It must be understood that while the Hindu-Buddhist heirs and usurpers to the Madjapahit throne were busy struggling for power, the Muslim nobles were away on a pilgrimage and probably on refuge.

Girisawardhana (a title referring to the mountains), son of Kertawijaya, came to power in 1456. Nevertheless, Madjapahit's power had declined through these dynastic conflicts and the growing power of the north-coastal kingdoms in Java.

In 1457, Raden Abu Bakr had returned from his pilgrimage to Mecca and established the Sultanate of Sulu and assumed the title of Paduka Batara Mahasari Maulana al-Sultan Sharif ul-Hashim. He preached Islam in Buansa and even erected a mosque at Tubig-Indangan.108

During that period there was an existing belief among the Hindu Javanese that the miserable state of Madjapahit was the result of the Batari Durga’s curses brought upon the empire by the policies of Suhita, and the empire would be released from this state of suffering by Bhre Daha, its “liberator” incarnated as Sadeva – who would become the instrument in bringing  harmony and peace into the land troubled with the dynastic conflict between the royal house of Madjapahit and the scion of the Kadiri (Daha) royal house.109

In 1466, after the death of Girisawardhana, Raden Abdul Rahman, being the husband of Dewi Candrawati, assumed the Madjapahit throne in Tumapel with the regal title Singhawikramawardhana.101 The royal family had just returned from Egypt with their children Prabu Cakrabuana (WalangSungsang), a title previously held by Gadjah Mada; and Putri Syarifah (also known as Nyai Rarasantang, i.e. “beautiful Sundanese lady”); and their adopted son Raden Fatah (the “Joko Samudra”).110 In 1468, Raden Abdul Rahman in fulfillment of the Hindu prophecy, probably to gain recognition and full support from Hindu constituents as cultural assimilation would apply, moved the kingdom’s capital further inland to Daha to appear that he was the Batari Durga incarnated into the warrior prince Sadeva – in Javanese belief Sadeva was a warrior prince who after marrying the daughter of a hermit slay the giant demon Kalanjaya from which the celestial being Citrasena who had been cursed was liberated.109 Raden Abdul Rahman assumed the regal title of Prabhu Bhattara Brawijaya Ranawijaya Kertabhumi Budaya (Brawijaya V).

In 1474, upon the advice of his council known as the Walisongo, Raden Abdul Rahman had moved the capital to Demak. Daha was a Hindu capital with little Muslim community and the Muslim council needed a place away from it so that Islam could grow stronger.111

The new formation put all member of Walisongo at every important seaport in Java. The strategic locations, with the help from Muslim merchants, enabled them to gain more control to the economic system of the island and strengthened the position of Walisongo and the Muslim communities. The economic control in the northern seaports and the strong military power in Demak and Giri were needed to anticipate the political heat in Madjapahit. For centuries, the Javanese Muslims were always protected under the rule of Madjapahit, which was tolerant to them, while most of the rebels did not like Islam. Should anything happen to Madjapahit, the Walisongo was already prepared to build an independent state to protect the growth of the new religion. 112

On the other hand, during this period, the Ming Empire further limited the number of tribute missions from overseas when it did not compensate the cost of maintaining foreign embassies and entertaining foreign envoys. 113

In western part of the crumbling empire, Madjapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca that in mid-15th century began to gain effective control of Malacca strait and expand its influence to Sumatra. Several other former Madjapahit vassals and colonies began to release themselves from Madjapahit domination and suzerainty.

In 1478, Raden Abdul Rahman abdicated the throne in favor of Raden Fatah who then established the Sultanate of Demak and declared its freedom from Madjapahit. He then built the Demak Masjid Agung Demak in 1479. 114

Demak was a busy harbor with trade connection to Malacca and the Spice Islands. It was located at the end of a channel that separated Java and Muria Island (the channel is now filled and Muria joined with Java). In 15th century until 18th century, the channel was wide enough and important waterway for ships traveling along northern Javanese coast to the Spices islands. In the channel is also located Serang River, which enabled access to rice producing interior of Java. This strategic location enabled Demak to rise as a leading trading centre in Java. According to Tome Pires, Demak had more inhabitants than any port in Sunda or Java. Demak was the main exporter of rice to Malacca. And with the rise of Malacca, so did Demak rise into prominence. Its supremacy also enhanced with claim of direct descent of Raden Fatah to Majapahit royalty and his marriages ties with neighboring city-states.115

In 1480, Abu Bakr abdicated the throne of Sulu Sultanate in favor of his new-found son, Fatah -- who assumed the royal title of Sultan Kamalud-Din (in Demak account he was also known as Kamiruddin; in Tidor, he was known as Djamaluddin) and married the Johor princess Juzul Asiqin (known in Sulu as Putri Paramisuli), daughter of Zainul Abiddin and descendant of Iskandar Dhul-Qarnayn (i.e., Cyrus the Great of Persia). Afterwards, in 1481, Abu Bakr had gone to Egypt with Fatah and his family to introduce them to his people – the Bani Israil.

In the same year, Prabu Cakrabuana had gone on a pilgrimage to Mecca with his younger sister Syarifah. According to the Cirebon account (Babad Tjeribon), when they were in Arabia they made a visit to Baitulmaqdis (Jerusalem) at the time when Sultan Abu Bakr, who was there too on a hajj, was in mourning for the death of his wife.  Sultan Abu Bakr instructed his minister (qadi or penghulu), Fatah (Jamal ud-Din in Sulu tarsilas; and Tjiliati, Tjiliatu, and Tjeri Leliatu were his non-Muslim titles and Djamaluddin was Muslim title in Tidor accounts) and his family, to find for him a woman whose appearance was like his former wife. It happened that the qadi met with Cakrabuana and Syarifah who were on their way to Baitulmaqdis. The minister found that Syarifah and Sultan Abu Bakr's former wife were alike and reported the matter to him. Upon learning this, Sultan Abu Bakr asked the minister to summon Cakrabuana and Syarifah to his palace and thence, after Syarifah stated her requirements and Sultan Abu Bakr granted them, the marriage occurred. Among the requirements was that Syarifah wished to have a son to become a wali who would preach Islam on Java. After his pilgrimage Cakrabuana took a new name, Hajji Abdullah Sulayman; Syarifah, upon marriage, took the new name, Syarifah Muda’im; while Abu Bakr was also known as Usman Hajji after marrying Syarifah. After marriage, Sultan Abu Bakr and Syarifah went to Mecca on another pilgrimage. They reached Medina in the month of Rabi'ulawwal, visited the Prophet's tomb and stayed in Medina until the month of Shawwal. They continued their journey to Mecca and did an umrah. They stayed in Mecca for a period of time where, on the month of Safar, Syarifah bore a child. 110 After nine months Syarifah had delivered a healthy baby boy they named Tullah which means “sign of God” from the Arabic “ayat Allah” which is a shortened form of ayatollah, an honorific title bestowed upon every Muslim student who receives the ijaza (license) that makes him a mujtahid (jurist). Tullah was born in Taif, Arabia on April 2, 1482 (3 Safar A.H. 887). It was in the following year, 1483, according to Soma Oriental that Trenggana, also named as Tung Ka Lo, was born to Juzul Asiqin.

In 1490, Sultan Abu Bakr together with his wife Syarifah, an 8-year-old son Tullah, Hajji Abdullah Sulayman (Cakrabuana) with his adopted daughter named Putri Mesir Gandasari, Fatah, and the whole royal retinue had arrived in Aceh, Sumatra. In some account, it was said that the boy Tullah was snatched by a garuda (probably a monkey-eating eagle) and was taken to its nest in Mt. Ledang at the Johor-Malacca border which story was later corroborated with Pigafetta’s account on a conversation with Tullah himself later in 1521. The boy was found by Raden Abdul Rahman with his wife Dewi Candrawati, hiding inside a hatched giant egg that was dropped from a tree. The boy was returned to his father. The young boy Tullah was then made as the new bupati of Aceh by the name of Arya Damar Abdullah, a title originally used by Rajadewi Wiyat when she conquered Bali and its subordinate states, which would indirectly mean for the Hindu Javanese who were waiting of a liberator as “Sadeva, the male incarnation of the Bhre Daha, has been born to liberate us!” 

Abdullah Sulayman was assigned as the adipati solok of Jefara (or Japara), the adipati agung of Brunei and Aceh, the rajah (i.e, “warrior-prince commander”) of Luzon, and the hyang wisesa (“army commander”) of Cirebon.

Raden Abdul Rahman had built a school in Medang. It was not only a school for preaching the sermons on Islam but a school of martial art called arnisor kali. Arnis -- which is a combination of the Japanese martial arts "budō" (武道), "bujutsu" (武術), and "bugei" (武芸); the Chinese kungfu; and the mimicry of the movement of the winds on falling leaves and the current of the river (kali) smashing to and flowing away from the rocks -- at that time was considered as the finest form of the silat in Southeast Asia. As a guru Raden Abdul Rahman assumed the title Guru Adiputra Budaya who was named in Pigafetta’s account as “Bulaya”. Among his students was his nephew-grandson Tullah whose interest in religious knowledge and skill in the art of self-defense became apparent at a very young age. 116

As evidenced by history, the country that succeeded in controlling the narrow strait between the Malay Peninsula and the island of Sumatra would gain complete control of China's maritime silk route and thus become a thalassocracy - a maritime trading empire. The Şrivijaya of South Sumatra did so in 670, the Chola of Southeast India in 1026, the Madjapahit of Java in 1343, the Sultanate of Malacca in 1400, and finally the Portuguese in 1512.

The Sultanate of Malacca

Cross references would show that between the latter part of the 15th century and the early part of the 16th century the capital of the Madjapahit Empire had been transferred from Trowulan to Daha (Kediri), then to Demak, then to Malacca, then to Sumatra, then back to Demak, then probably to Johor, and then finally to Brunei and the islands now known as the Philippines due to regional conflicts and to the invasions of the Portuguese, the Spaniards, the British, and the Dutch. It was under the rule of a Javanese-Chinese-descent Sultan Muhammad Shah or Mahmud Shah known also as Bulkeiah, Ahmad, and Awang Alak Betatar in Brunei; as Nakoda Ragam (“singing captain”) in Johor & Luzon; as Gung Anom, Pati Unus,Adipati Yunus, and Prabu Udara  in Java; Amir-ul-Umara in Sulu; and as Haring Habagat or Riayat Umabong (spelled Humabon by Pigafetta) in Sumatra. He was the son of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah of Malacca (son of the Parameswara) who upon his father's premature death, in 1488, was installed at a very young age – that is, 8 years old. The regent at that time was the Bendahara (Prime Minister) Perak (known in Luzon as the blacksmith Panday Pera). During his initial years as a young adult, the sultan was known to be a ruthless monarch. The administration of the sultanate was in the hands of an able and wise Perak.

It was during the administration of Perak that a group of five Panglima Awang who served not only as warrior-commander but also as warrior-admiral. These five warrior-admirals were named by traditions not with their real names but according to their number symbolical to their individual characteristics. The number-names of the warrior-admirals below are in Malay-stylized Chinese-Sanskrit-Arabic-Malay switching of words and concept commonly practiced during the Srivijaya and Madjapahit eras.

The number-names of the warrior-admirals are as follows:

1)    First Warrior-Admiral:                     Hang Kasturi
2)    Second Warrior-Admiral:               Hang Jebat
3)    Third Warrior-Admiral:                    Hang Lekiu
4)    Fourth Warrior-Admiral:                 Hang Lekir
5)    Fifth Warrior-Admiral:                     Hang Tuah

It must be noted that during this period the Malay language was used as the lingua franca of commerce within the empire and it was a practice among the Malays who traded with the Chinese and Arabs to switch names of persons or places into Sanskrit, Chinese, and Arabic homonymous names or synonymous in meaning and vise-versa to give double meanings akin to the characteristic of a certain subject.

The number-names mentioned above are not Chinese names as it will likely imply if interpreted on the present perspective and context that Chinese names carry the surnames first. In this case, it must be emphasized that “Hang” used to address the warrior-admirals is neither a Chinese surname nor a styled Chinese loan-words “huang” (elder) and “hwang” (king). It is a Malay word “awang”, “orang”, or “hyang” styled to sound like Chinese and to mean almost synonymous but attached with double meanings or secret concepts.

It will be discussed briefly as follows:

1)    Hang Kasturi. Kasturi means in Sanskrit as “musk” which is the fragrance found in the musk deer as in the maxim “the musk deer chases the wonderful smell that is actually inside its own body". A deer if translated into Malay will become “rusa” or “usa” in other branches of Malay used in trade during the period like the Cebuano-Visayan language. In Cebuano-Visayan “usa” could both mean “deer” and “one”. Hence, Hang Kasturi would also mean as “first warrior or warrior number one”. Then if you add “awang” and “usa” it would sound like “wangsa” or “bangsa” which would mean an “aristocrat” or “hyang wisesa” which is equivalent to a “wikramawardhana” which is an admiral; hence, Hang Kasturi would also mean “warrior-admiral number one”. And taking into consideration the Greek meaning of “Kastōr” Κάστωρ, it would mean "beaver" or "he who excels", meaning “number one”. In Greek myth, Kastōr and Pollūx were the twin sons of the goddess Leda who were hatched from an egg.  Kastōr was a mortal and half-brother of Pollūx. They were considered as the Dioscuri (“sons of God”) that became the constellation Gemini that was often invoked by travelers and of sailors to seek favorable winds.  Kastōr and Pollūx would be the masculine equivalent of the Chinese sea-goddess, Tianfei, invoked for favorable winds by Zheng He. Tianfei would sound very similar to Jambi (Açeh) which would refer to one of the three kingdoms of Sumatra. The S’yair Awang Semaun relates that the first rulers of Brunei were descendants of Dewa Amas of Kayangan, a part supernatural being who descended to earth at Ulu Limbang in an egg. This could be referred to Hajji Abdullah Sulayman who was called as the Damang Sari (or Damong Sari which means “warrior prince”) of Brunei, as the Hyang Wisesa of Daha, and as the Prabu Cakrabuana of Cirebon & Jambi (Açeh). Note that the number-name “Hang Kasturi” does not only imply the cardinal of number but it also implies a character and description of a person.

2)    Hang Jebat. Hang Jebat is also identifiable with Hang Biajit or Tun Biajit in the Sejarah Melayu. “Je bat” which means “second or two” in Hokkien has a similar sound with “biajit” which is a corrupted form of the Sanskrit “tyajeth” which means “one has to give up” (for number two). Moreover, there are Sanskrit words related to number two and often used as names of persons within the period like “dvaapara” (that die or side of a die which is marked with two spots) and “adwaya” (without a second). “Adwaya” was used in Java and Sumatra at that time to mean an “admiral” while on the other hand “Dvaapara” sounds similar with the Arabic name Jaafara, which was also a famous name of an Islamic saint Sayyid (Arab traveler) Ja′far as-Sadiq who existed during the period. From this it could be understood that Jafar as-Sadiq was the same person referred to in Malaccan accounts as the “warrior-admiral number two”.

3)    Hang Lekiu. Lekiu must be meant to Lio Kio Gurun the Manchu name for the Ryūkyū Kingdom of Japan which played a central role in the maritime trade networks of medieval East and Southeast Asia. In the 14th century, small domains scattered on Okinawa Island were unified into three principalities: Hokuzan (北山, Northern Mountain), Chūzan (中山, Central Mountain) and Nanzan (南山, Southern Mountain). This was known as the Three Kingdoms or Sanzan (三山, Three Mountains) period. It is obvious that number three is being emphasized again. There was an admiral named Khoja Hassan being mentioned in the Malaccan account whose name has a similar sound with Hokuzan, Chūzan, and Nanzan. Hence, it could be concluded that Hang Lekiu or “warrior-admiral number three” was one and the same with the admiral Khoja Hassan. The question now is who among the Walisongo was Khoja Hassan? There is only one clue, the political capital of Chūzan (which sounds more similar to Khoja Hassan) was at Shuri, neighbored the major trade port of Naha and center of traditional Chinese learning, Kumemura. Or it could be from Kamakura which is surrounded as it is on three sides by mountains and was so named after a type of sword called kamayari (similar-sounding with the sword associated with the Panglima Awang which was the taming sari) that was enshrined in a place called Okura; hence, kamayari plus Okura turned into Kamakura. Kamakura (鎌倉市 Kamakura-shi) is a city used to be the former de facto capital of Japan as the seat of the Shogunate and of the Regency. Interestingly with the play of words if Kamakura would be translated from Sanskrit-Persian it could mean “horse-lover” from kama (love) and kura (horse) while Khoja Hassan would sound like Khoda or Quda Hassan which would also mean the same thing while if changed to Nakhoda Hassan it would mean captain-general or an admiral. This warrior-admiral could be likened to or literally a Japanese shogun who must have not returned in Japan in 1498 since it was hit by a tsunami generated from Meiō Nankaidō earthquake that had washed away the building housing the statue of the Great Buddha at Kōtoku-in in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Japan; since then the Buddha has sat in the open air. Both Kamakura and Kumemura is also similar-sounding with the name of Amir Hassan Umar Sayyid, another member of the Walisongo who was either an Arab or an Arab mestizo as indicated by the word sayyid, which means either Arab traveler or Arab mestizo. Or would it be possible that Kamakura at that time was a vassal of the Madjapahit Empire? Probably it must also have a connection with the Javanese concept that Java was an island of Kama, the god of love equivalent to the Latin Cupid and the Greek Eros. Yet there is a great probability that this “warrior-admiral number three” is no other than Sultan Muhammad Shah himself who was also called in his imperial title as Nakhoda Ragam Amir-ul-Umara Hassanal Bolkeiah (in Persian it means, “Singing Captain King of the Southwest Monsoon Bringer of the Fountain of Life”), the “god” of erotic love.

4)    Hang Lekir. “Lekir” is Hokkien for “fourth or four”. In Sanskrit there is a concept related to number four and fourth which is the Kali-yuga, the fourth of four repeating ages that form the basic cycles of universal time. Interestingly Kali-yuga has a similar sound of the name of another Islamic saint Sunan Kalijaga or Sunan Kalijogo which derived its nature from the Arabic notion of qadli dzaqa which means "holy leader" in the sultanate. Another interesting to note is that the word “lekir” has also a similar sound with “ilir-ilir” which was a prayer song composed by Sunan Kalijaga. But in Javanese “kali” means river and “jogo or joko” means enchanted or raised up – hence Kali Jogo would mean “raised up from the river”. There was one whose name would suggest that he was that boy, namely Joko Samudra which literally means “the enchanted boy who was raised up from the river-ocean”.  The said person was Raden Fatah.

5)    Hang Tuah. Hokkien “tuah” which means “elder or big” is the source of “kuya” in Tagalog, another branch of Malay widely spoken as a trade language especially in Luzon, Brunei, and Malacca as historical records would show. If “hang” will be switched back to “awang” and “kuya” will be used instead of “tuah” it will become “awang kuya” which has a similar sound with “orang kaya” which was actually used to address the warriors since its literal meaning is “man-of-war” or a Kşatriya. Out of a number ranging from one to five, five will be the biggest in ascending order which means that “tuah” also denotes big and would really mean “five or fifth”. In Sanskrit, five or fifth is “sthuula” and originally identical with “sthura” which means “large, thick, stout, massive, bulky, big, huge, coarse,  gross, and rough” and with “yatha-sthuula” which means dense, dull, stolid, strong, and big”. “Tuah” also in another dialects and branches of Malay would become “tulah”. And interestingly enough another name of an Islamic saint has a similar sound that is, Syarif Hidayatullah which if switch into Malay homonymous name it will become “Si Adwaya Tullah” which will fit exactly to the warrior-admiral’s rank – that is, “Lord Admiral Commander Tullah” – and if only “Awang Tullah” will be used it will sound very similar to “Hang Tuah”. 

Lastly, taking into account that the Malay play of words used here is generally Malay-Sanskrit switch and most if not all the characters are associated with the Walisongo who propagated Islam in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines then it must be perceived conceptually and contextually into a Hindu-Javanese psyche on the Mahabharata. The concept of “Panglima Awang” or royal bodyguards composed of five warriors has its root on the belief of a Pandava or the five brothers who are sons of Pandu.

In the Mahābhārat, Book III: Varna Parva, Section 268 the Pandavas are described as follows:

1)    Yudhisthira -- possessed a "complexion like that of pure gold, possessed of a prominent nose and large eyes, and endued with a slender make." Master of the spear. He was just, had a correct sense of morality, and was merciful to surrendering foes.

2)    Bhima -- tall and long-armed. In a display of ferocity, he was "biting his lips, and contracting his forehead so as to bring the two eyebrows together." The master of the mace, his superhuman feats had earned him great renown. "They that offend him are never suffered to live. He never forgets a foe. On some pretext or other he wreaks his vengeance."

3)    Arjuna -- the greatest of archers, intelligent, second to none "with senses under complete control." Neither lust nor fear nor anger could make him forsake virtue. Though capable of withstanding any foe, he would never commit an act of cruelty.

4)    Nakula -- "the most handsome person in the whole world." An accomplished master swordsman, he was also "versed in every question of morality and profit" and "endued with high wisdom." He was unflinchingly devoted to his brothers, who in turn regarded him as more valuable than their own lives. The name Nakula generally means full of love.

5)    Sahadeva (Sadeva) -- the youngest of the brothers, and like the others formidable in war and observant of morality. Master of the swords. "Heroic, intelligent, wise and ever wrathful, there is not another man equal unto him in intelligence or in eloquence amid assemblies of the wise."

All the characteristics of the Pandavas according to their number are exactly the same with the characteristics of the Malaccan “Panglima Awang” mentioned earlier respectively. But it does not mean that the said warriors were the characters in the Mahabharata itself for they were true historical figures in Southeast Asia between the 15th and 16th centuries.

Based on the identification of the number-named warriors, proper names will be used here in the preceding narratives to avoid confusion.

Around 1494, the time when Tullah had already perfected his natural abilities at self-defense by studying the arnis that he, according to the Cirebon account, had discovered, inside a box hidden in his father’s special room, a Koran or a book about the Essence of Muhammadiyah (haqeqat Muhammadiah) written in golden ink which inspired him to leave the palace and sail to Malacca to study Islam deeper. 110 Along with him were his relatives who had also decided to go with him for his religious yearnings – Abdullah Sulayman, both his uncle and cousin; and Fatah, his half-brother. It was during this time that Perak had first noticed him and his relatives. According to Malaccan account, a band of pirates ran amok, causing havoc in a village, and Perak and his guards' attempts to quell the unrest resulted in further attacks on the Bendahara. The Bendahara's guards fled, but when Tullah and his relatives saw the commotion, they were reported to have killed the group of pirates, thus saving the Bendahara.117 In Cebuano oral tradition, the said pirates were Chinese pirates led by a certain Chiong Li.118 Perak was so impressed by the lad’s courage that he recruited him and his relatives to work at the palace, where they rose in the ranks, eventually becoming feared members of the Sultan's royal guards. He then taught Tullah on the Malay language which was used as the official lingua franca of commerce within the empire and on royal court etiquettes. 117

In 1497, when Tullah and the other two musketeers were assigned as laksamanas (admirals) they set a fleet intending to conquer Rajagaluh, a vassal-state of Hindu Galuh – Pajajaran which is in the Sunda Islands. Along this time, Gandasari who was living in Abdullah Sulayman’s palace in Cirebon since she was a child had already grown fifteen and with remarkable beauty. Sulayman was planning to use the beauty of his adopted daughter as bait for Prabu Cakraningrat of Rajagaluh. So he asked Tullah to teach his adopted daughter about Sufism – a branch of Islam which studies magic -- and trained her in the art of war and self-defense of which she paid special attention.  By the end of that year when Gandasari had already shown competence in defending herself, according to the Cirebon account, she was sent to fool Prabu Cakraningrat with her beauty and do things necessary to attract him until he would propose marriage with her and by that she would be taken to Rajagaluh not only to see its marvels and excellence but also the detailed security of the kingdom. The plan was a success – Gandasari was married to Prabu Cakraningrat. This paved the way for Abdullah Sulayman to make the necessary plans to bring about the fall of Rajagaluh. To make it short, Rajagaluh was conquered at the end.119 They had also conquered Tidor during that year and Fatah (Djamaluddin) was crowned as the first Muslim ruler of Tidor. It could be very probable that the said admirals were helping Malacca in order to attain their own goals of propagating Islam and expanding their own territories which was not seen by Perak and the Sultan.

Sultan Muhammad Shah became very ambitious that he thought of conquering the Madjapahit Empire not knowing that his own admirals were the ruling class themselves. At that time Madjapahit’s seat of power was centered in a Muslim sultanate of Demak. It would be very difficult for him to conquer it without vassalages within the island. Around 1498, Sultan Muhammad Shah ordered his laksamana Tullah, who was known for his absolute and unfaltering loyalty to his Sultan, to gather the fleets for they would conquer Japara, a vassal state of Demak, and other coastal cities of Java. It was said that Abdullah Sulayman, the Adipati Solok of Japara and the Taming Sari or Damong Sari of Brunei, challenged his nephew, but at the same time his cousin, Tullah in a duel to prove his worth.  After a brutal fight, Abdullah Sulayman was defeated, his men flee, and Tullah who would have been entitled to have him executed on the spot as a pirate, treated him with all the respect due to a royal prince. Raden Abdul Rahman took his son’s kris and bestowed it to Tullah as its new owner. The kris which was known as Taming Sari after the name of its original owner was believed to be magical and empowers its possessor with invincibility. When the fleet returned to Malacca, Tullah took Abdullah Sulayman with him and made him as his blood brother and gave him the honor of a Maharaja Sang Setia and became one of the five famous warrior-admirals of the Islamic Madjapahit Empire. 120

According to Malaccan account, Tullah handed a letter sent by Raden Abdul Rahman which was addressed to the Sultan: 121

Maka titah raja kepada Laksamana, Hai Orang Kaya Laksamana, apa sebabnya maka anak kita pergi ke Melaka? Maka sembah Laksamana. “Daulat Tuanku Syah Alam, patik mohonkan ampun dan karnia: patik tidak amu persembahkan ke bawah Duli Syah Alam melainkan tuanku bertanyatah kepada paduka anakanda.” Maka Adipati Agung pun berdiam dirinya fikir dalam hatinya. Maka baginda pun tahulah akan ertinya sembah Laksamana itu.

Tullah who had referred his own ruler as paduka adinda when addressing the pengiran berunai, displayed further traits of magnanimity of becoming a sultan in order not to be outdone by the adipati agung’s generosity on his departure. When the laksamana returned, the pengiran berunai’s letter was taken in procession by elephant inside the palace compound and all the way to the audience hall as only befits the greatest of kings. But when it came to the gift of five hundred decorative boxes each worth a tahil, the Sultan merely commented: 122

            Apa gunanya gendaga itu kepada kita? Mana bicara Laksamanalah itu.

In the same year, Japan had been hit by a tsunami which probably included Luzon and other parts of northern Philippines. It was in this year that marked the death of Perak who was succeeded by a new Tamil bendahara, Mutahir. The death of Perak changed Sultan Muhammad Shah into a more responsible ruler. He created a band of blood brothers known as the saudara. The said saudara were appointed either bendahara or pengiran of the different states of his empire. As an amir-al-bahr (commander of the sea), he organized fleets and with his able laksamanas (admirals) he conquered so many lands. But most of the times conquered them by marrying its princesses either with consent or by force.

In 1503, Mar Elijah, Patriarch of the East Syrian church, had sent three missionaries "to the islands of the sea which are inside Java and to China." 123 One of these missionaries was Jaۥfar. In Cirebon account the said missionary came to Cirebon at the time when Tullah was married to the princess of Cirebon named Nyi Mas Babadan. Tullah was informed about the coming of the pandita (saint) to Cirebon – a Sharif Syam which means “a priest from Syria” which the natives called Pangeran Karangkendal since he first preached in Karangkendal which is located 19 kilometers northward from Cirebon. The pandita was described as a handsome young man having a very long hair which, when it was loosened, would reach the ground and so he always knotted (gelung) his hair – this was the reason why he was also called as Syeikh Magelung (“the Syeikh with knotted hair”). The informant told Tullah that the pandita’s long hair was “invulnerable to all cutting devices; that he wandered from place to place in search of someone who would  be able to cut his hair; and should he find someone, he would be willing to surrender to him and become his disciple.”

Hearing that, Tullah had made a deception plan with Abdullah Sulayman. When Abdullah Sulayman met Jaۥfar, he told him that on his way he would be attacked by a robber who would cut his hair. Of course, Jaۥfar would not believe it but swore that if that would happen he would come back and become his disciple. On his way, Tullah who was in disguise and wearing a veil on his face attacked the pandita; pinning the latter down to the ground he cut the pandita’s hair; and then fled. The place in the city of Cirebon where his hair was cut is called Karang-getas (‘the land easily cut’). Believing that Sulayman was a prophet, Jaۥfar came back to him. There he saw the 21-year old widow Gandasari who became the center of attraction among the crowd of men who had offered her a lot of things just to make her become their wife. Gandasari asked the advice of her brother Tullah on what to do. Tullah told his cousin that if she would rather wait to marry in the hereafter, whereas in this world, she would become his disciple. Then he continued that since she had already completed learning of tasawuf from him it was the right time that she must take a husband. To make the decision easier she announced a competition by which she declared that any man who could beat her in a fight would be the one she would take as her husband. The watching crowd was made up of both spectators and competitors attempting to win her. There were many princes and knights who attempted but no one succeeded. Then Jaۥfar, who had come a long way from his pilgrimage to Kudus (Jerusalem), introduced himself and challenged Gandasari to a fight. Although their fighting skills were really equal and balanced, Gandasari, who was exhausted, jumped behind Tullah to hide from Jaۥfar’s attack. Disregarding the fact that there was someone sitting between them, Jaۥfar tried to grab Gandasari and almost hit Tullah’s head; but before his hand reached the head he fell down powerless. Tullah helped him and mediated by declaring that neither one was winner or loser. 124 Later, Jaۥfar went on a journey with Tullah and became another warrior-admiral of the Islamic Madjapahit Empire.

In 1505, Tullah attended the coronation of Trenggana, the only son of Fatah, as the new sultan of Demak and the birth of Fatah’s daughter with Juzul Asiqin who was named as Kesuma who was later known also as Layla Manjanay (“Lady of the Night”) among the Tausug and the Turks; Lei-la Men-chi-nei in Chinese records; Puteri Gunung Ledang in Johor; Nyi Mas Panguragan, Ratu Ayu, and Ratu Nyawa in Cirebon account; Radin Mas Ayu, Ratna Kalinyamat, Kencana Wungu in Javanesse account; Puteri Sadung and Che’ Siti in Kelantan account; Hara Amihan, in Cebu account; and etc.

The Sultan’s lust for beautiful girls did not always bring him good. It became one of the reasons with his conflicts with the Tamil Bendahara Mutahir. Accordingly, when the Sultan had heard the remarkable beauty of Teja (which means “radiance”), the daughter of Surya Si Amar DiRaja, the ruler of Luzon who had acquired a large parcel of land in Pahang, Malacca for his big plantation of peppers and assumed as Rajah Bendahara of Pahang Inderapura, he immediately went there and proposed for marriage but it was denied. Frustrated, the Sultan, instead, had asked the hand of Fatimah, the daughter of Mutahir, in marriage but the bendahara denied the proposal since his daughter’s marriage to Ali was already arranged and their wedding was already scheduled. Ali was one of the Sultan’s sons. The Sultan became even more furious when Fatimah was married to Ali. Mutahir suspected that anytime he would be sentenced to death so he had plotted a plan on putting an end to the Sultan’s tyranny. So one day while the Sultan was away on his voyages, through his insinuation, he had convinced Ahmad Shah, the eldest son of the Sultan, to usurp the throne. Knowing this upon his return, the Sultan ordered Jaۥfar to kill his son Ahmad Shah which he did, probably because he felt he had no choice. “Fearing for blood revenge against which even the ruler of Malacca could not guarantee protection”, Jaۥfar fled to Pasai and Haru but upon seeing that it was difficult to settle there he sailed to Brunei and married Gandasari who had named him as her Pangeran Soka (“Prince Charming”). According to Javanese accounts, Jaۥfar was “converted to Islam” but it could be doubtful. Probably he had just assimilated his teachings to local culture as what the other Syrian Christian missionaries did in India. Syrian Christians in India and Southeast Asia did not use any pictures, paintings or statues of Jesus or saints in their churches until the arrival of Portuguese for they considered it as idolatry and when they prayed they just clapped their hands and looked at the sky and called the Heavenly Father – Abba. Most of the Syrian Christians who had gone to Southeast Asia were from India and may had been Hindus before they were converted to Syrian Christianity hence they were vegetarians and did not eat meat. This similarity with Sufism must have been misinterpreted by the Muslims in the area as another type of unorthodox branch of Islam.

At that time, Tullah's deep loyalty to and popularity with the Sultan led to rumors being circulated that Tullah was having an illicit affair with one of the Sultan's stewardess Dayang. Frustrated on his denied marriage proposals, the Sultan sentenced Tullah to death without trial for the alleged offense. The death sentence was never carried out, however, because Tullah's executioner, the Bendahara Mutahir, went against the Sultan’s orders and hid Tullah in a remote region of Malacca – in Pahang.

Tullah, while away in exile, sought for a way to return to the king's grace, and decided one way to go about it was to present Teja to His Highness. In order to get close to Teja, Tullah had to first befriend Teja's chambermaid, Dayang Ratna, to whom he offered gifts. Dayang Ratna was easily won over. With her as his ally, he presented a set of exquisite textile to Teja. However Teja swiftly rejected the gift. Left with little choice, Tullah resorted to “using a love potion”, which he got from Dayang Ratna to sprinkle on Teja's seat. The love potion accordingly made Teja fell madly in love for Tullah, and she consented in following him back to Malacca.

Tullah had in fact led Teja to believe that they were eloping, as they left Inderapura without the knowledge or consent of her father. When the Bendahara Inderapura learned that his daughter had eloped with Tullah, he sent his warriors the Laksamana and Seri Maharaja Lela to give chase. In the ensuring fight, Tullah managed to defeat the Bendahara Inderapura's warriors.

During this period, the other jealous Malay ministers accused Mutahir of planning a rebellion. The Sultan wanted to kill him but he could not prove the accusation. It was also the time when Jaۥfar had returned to Malacca but only to hear the news that Tullah was dead, murdered unjustly by the Sultan he served.  He ran amok to the royal court to avenge his death. Jaۥfar in the heat of the event had killed Mutahir, which he believed to have executed Tullah, and the family of the bendahara. The Sultan ordered his warriors to kill Jaۥfar but none of the Sultan's warriors dared to challenge the more ferocious and skilled Jaۥfar. The Sultan was unable to stop him ran outside the palace square. Sulayman came to save the Sultan and dashed to Jaۥafar. After a grueling fight, Jaۥfar had been stabbed by Sulayman.

Probably aside from saving the Sultan’s life, Abdullah Sulayman’s killing of Jaۥfar had been triggered by his fear that Jaۥfar was not really converted to Islam and still secretly professing his original faith to Tullah who if not stopped would soon convert the latter to Syrian Christianity and lastly because of Jaۥfar’s infidelity to the Sultan by continuously getting illicit relationships with the Sultan’s concubines which endangered Tullah and probably for other unknown reasons would endanger all of them.

The tragic event happened when Tullah and Teja together with her contingent of chambermaids had arrived in Malacca. Sulayman had explained to Tullah of what had happened. Jaۥfar retreated to Tullah and dying in his friend’s arms said, "Raja adil raja disembah, raja zalim raja disanggah." ("A fair king is a king to obey; a cruel king is a king to fight against".)

Seeing Tullah alive and believing that it was him who killed Jaۥfar, the Sultan had given Tullah full amnesty. The Sultan then prepared a royal welcome for the princess. As the princess was paraded through Malacca, she began to realize that she had been tricked by Tullah into following him to Malacca, and that she was in fact going to be married to the Sultan, not to Tullah. Teja was forced into the marriage, “but the king loved her deeply, and over time, won her love in return”. 125

The Arrival of the Portuguese

During the visit of the Portuguese admiral Diogo Lopes de Sequeira, on his famous voyage intended for the Spice Islands, to Malacca (from 1509-1510), the sultan planned to assassinate him. However, Sequeira learned of this plot and fled Malacca but not without a battle. Diogo Lopes de Sequeira almost died in the hands of Tullah if not with the help of his page, Fernan Magellan. The Portuguese had managed to escape and not later than October 10, 1510, Fernan Magellan was rewarded for his many services with the rank of captain.

In 1511, upon hearing a word from Fernan Magellan of what had happened to Sequeira‘s conquest in Malacca, the famous Portuguese naval officer Afonso de Albuquerque decided to utilize this to embark upon his expeditions of conquest in Asia.126 With Fernan Magellan, Albuquerque sailed to Malacca. Malacca was then subsequently attacked by the Portuguese when Tun Teja was taken ill. The first battle ensued on July 13, 1511 the feast day of Saint Henry. On that day, Trenggana, who who was visiting the royal court of Malacca at that time to take back Dayang, Sultan Muhammad Shah’s stewardess whom he loved dearly, had been captured by Fernan Magellan. The Battle of Malacca lasted more or less a month from July to August, 1511.127

Trenggana a.k.a Enrique de Malacca


On the part of the Madjapahit prince and Sultan of Demak, Trenggana, it was learned later that he was taken by Fernan Magellan on his voyage back to Portugal, then to Spain, and to all the trips of Magellan since 1511-1521. In Harun Aminurrashid's book Panglima Awang, it is said that Magellan told him to change his religion, or at least to change his name, in order to avoid bad treatment from the ship's crew for being a Muslim. Magellan himself gave him the name Henrique. His Christian name appears only in Antonio Pigafetta's account, in Magellan's Last Will, and in official documents at the Casa de Contratación de las Indias of the Magellan expedition to the Moluccas. Pigafetta who was an Italian called him Henrich128 and stated that he was originally from Sumatra which was, according to him, named anciently as “Taprobana” (probably a confusion of the ancient name of the island of Sri Lanka which was was called Ceilão, i.e. Ceylon, by the Portuguese in 1505 which name was also addressed to Sumatra by Pigafetta in 1521) but in Spain he was officially called as Enrique de Malacca. The book also describes how Magellan treated Henrique not as a slave but as a friend, and defended him from the prejudice of other sailors. 129

On the note that the former name of Sumatra was Taprobana, Pigafetta might had based this on the comparison between the  Catalan Map of 1375 and the Typus Orbis Terrarum (the world map used by the Europeans during the 16th century). In the Catalan Map, the island of Taprobana (Sumatra) was erroneously located at the right or eastern side of the island of Java. Yet if we compare it with the Typus Orbis Terrarum, Java Minor (Sumatra) was placed east of a peninsula known as Lucach and was placed south of the Cape de Malaca (Malay Peninsula), Sumatra, and Java Major (Java). But if we draw from the fact that Java Minor is Sumatra and Lucach is Yucat or Jocat, one of the old names of Malay Peninsula, we could conclude that Lucach, Petan (more probably "Petang" which means in Malay as "afternoon" which has a similar meaning to "Jana" another name for Java which means "sunset" or it would Pulau Pedang, Pulau Bengkalis, Pulau Tebingtinggi, and Pulau Rangsang as a compact island), and Java Minor in the said map is only an inverse of the Malay Peninsula, Java, and Sumatra. Probably it was politically intended to hide the real whereabout of Jocat, the so-called "Land of Gold", the real Biblical Ophir.

By end of that year, Sultan Muhammad Shah had taken over the island of Ternate in the Moluccas and was called there as Prabu Udara. When he was there, the Portuguese friend of Magellan, Francisco Serrao, had been shipwrecked near Ternate. As Prabu Udara, Sultan Muhammad Shah saved the said Portuguese and from thereon the grateful Francisco had enriched the Sultan at the expense of Tidor which was under the jurisdiction of Fatah who was known there as Djamaluddin, being the son-in-law of Zainul Abd-Din of Johor.

Tullah and the Celestial Fairy

At the capture of Malacca, the Sultan and the royal family with his able men and warriors -- such as Tullah, Khoja Hassan, and Sulayman -- retreated to Muar, Johor. Tun Teja who felt seriously ill passed away when the royal family reached Merlimau. Continuing the journey and staying at Johor as refugees, the Sultan had heard that the crown princess of Johor, who was a descendant of Iskandar Dhul-Qarnayn – believed before to be Alexander the Great of Macedonia but recently concluded by many scholars as no other than Cyrus the Great of Achaemenid Persia (559-530 BC) -- and the couple Adityawarman and the Bhre Daha, and the only daughter of Raden Fatah with his principal wife, hence, the rightful heir of the Madjapahit Empire, had arrived from her long journey to China with a ship-load of five hundred amazons. He had heard that the princess they called “celestial fairy” -- for she could bestow the power of leadership over Madjapahit upon any man she would marry -- was living at Mt. Ledang at the Melaka-Johor border and that she possessed the two “monsoons’ orbs” or the “pearls-of-Allah” among the Muslims. The said princess was crowned Madjapahit empress and assumed the imperial Madjapahit title Damhara Amihan after her brother had been missing and ruled Johor.

At once, the Sultan sent Tullah with Abdullah Sulayman to court the puteri gunung ledang (“Princess of Mount Ledang) on his behalf and to get the nobat from her father, whom he did not know to be Fatah, while they proceed on their way to Japara.

According to traditions, the Princess only agreed to marry Sultan Muhammad Shah if he satisfied a list of requirements, or pre-wedding gifts – such as bridges of gold and silver linking Melaka with the top of Gunung Ledang; seven trays of mosquito livers; seven trays of mite hearts; seven jars of virgins' tears; vat of water from dried areca nuts; a cup of the rajah’s blood; and a bowl of the blood of the sultan's first born son. The said traditions were very similar to the Pampangeño and Cebuano legends about the fairies Mariang Sinukuan and Maria Cacao, respectively, who had requested impossible tasks to a giant suitor they would not want to marry. Tullah knew the tasks would not be fulfilled and was said to be so overwhelmed that he failed his Sultan that he flung his kris into a river and vowed only to return to Malacca if it resurfaced, which it never did.

In other Malay legends where the “celestial fairy” was called as Puteri Sadung, it has been stated that the Sultan ordered his men by force and deliver her to his court. In the Hikayat Hang Tuah, it could be understood that Tullah and Abdullah Sulayman fled to Brunei while the princess, based on Bornean accounts, had escaped with her father Fatah but got shipwrecked near Brunei. Tullah was said to search for the princess but could not find her. But he had learned from the sailors of the sunken ship who were saved by the Kedayans that the bird of the “celestial fairy” named “pinggai” had flown to a place now known as Kampong Burong Pinggai which meant she must be alive and was hiding there.130Pinggai” is a variant name of the Philippine cockatoo which is endemic to Sulu and the Visayan Islands.

Later it was found out that the princess was in Sulu disguising as Tullah assumed the throne of the Sultanate of Sulu with the title Ala-ud-Din or Nur-ul-Alam while her father had returned to Tidor. It was known after the said princess had sent a message to the Sultan Batari (feminine form for sultan batara which means “empress”) of Johor, which was referring to Juzul Asiqin, through her bird, not to worry for she was still alive and living in an island known as “Ophir” (referring to Mindanao). 131

In the meantime, Sultan Muhammad Shah had established his new government in Sumatra and was converted to Islam by name but still professing his Buddhist beliefs. He was planning to revive the Srivijayan Empire by taking back all the jurisdictions of Madjapahit. He seized the vacant throne of Demak. Later in that year, the sultan managed to mobilize fleets from Java to Malay Peninsula and tried to seize back the port of Malacca from the control of the Portuguese but failed. Most of the forces composing the fleets of the Sultan were Chinese sent by the Ming Dynasty since the Malay Malacca Sultanate was its tributary state and ally. 132

Believing that the fleet of Fernan Magellan (who was then sent on by the viceroy with Antonio d' Abreu to explore the Spice Islands) -- which left from Malacca at the end of December 1511 and sailed along the north of Java, passed between Java and Madura, left Celebes on their left, coasted by the Gunong Api volcano, touched at Bura, and so reached Amboyna and Banda where they found such abundance of spices – was sent to capture Java, Sultan Muhammad Shah with his fleet sailed back to Demak and stayed there for long to protect it from a possible invasion. There was a report at that time in China that all the Chinese in Java were wiped out by the treachery of the Sultan who poisoned them at a banquet. 133

Pengiran Temenggong

Tullah now assumed the name Awang Si Ayu which meant “the handsomest and brightest warrior of the land (empire)”. But among the saudara, 14 blood-brothers or brothers-in-law created by Sultan Muhammad Shah, he was considered as “the bravest and strongest”. According to the S’yair Awang Semaun, he acquired his extra-ordinary strength after eating a magical archerfish locally called as Ikan Sumpit-Sumpit while in Sulu traditions, Tullah was born beside the river in Sulu pale, frail, and almost lifeless but as a baby, he grabbed a swimming red grouper fish known locally as pugapu and ate it which afterwards made him strong and red in complexion – hence the boy was called as “pula-pula” (reddish) and later as Dullah or Dakullah (which means “great” or “strong”) – the said fish is called at present in Luzon as lapu-lapu and in Cebu as pugapu. 

He married Gandasari, the widow of Jaۥfar and raised his friend’s son, who was born two months after his death, as his own son and named him Tugau (who was later known in Brunei and the Philippines as Sulayman). While Abdullah Sulayman acted as the Adipati Agung of Brunei, Tullah was still assigned as the Pengiran Temenggong (admiral) of Brunei’s fleet whose authority covered Borneo, Cirebon & the Sunda Islands, and the Philippine Archipelago. A Pengiran Temenggong, which comprised one of the four viziers of the empire, was supposedly a rank second to the sultan and higher than a shahbandar (the one who collected taxes and tributes from the ships that entered the imperial waters), hence a shahbandar had to report to the Pengiran Temenggong about the said matter but in the case of Sultan Muhammad’s reign who had hired a Chamese Shahbandar as the people of Champa were known for extra-ordinary intelligence at that time, the Shahbandar would report directly to him by-passing the authority of the Pengiran Temenggong and violating some maritime laws being observed in the empire. In the S’yair Awang Semaun the Juru Shahbandar was Awang Lebar Daun, who appeared either his "brother", "father", "foster father", or "father-in-law".

According to the S’yair Awang Semaun, Tullah (Awang Si Ayu or Awang Simaun), Abdullah Sulayman (Awang Damang Sari), and Ja’far (Awang Jerambak) were responsible in conquering the Melanau kingdom that stretched from Mukah to Tutong; Java; the entire Borneo; and the entire Philippines. The said conquest was not always about army and navy but it was also done by winning the lands in terms of the most popular gambling sports at that time like the top-spinning and cock-fighting – that is, they won just 40 Madjapahit ships laden with goods by winning in the said sports.

When the Portuguese finally took Malacca in 1512, the resident merchants from Luzon and Brunei held important government posts in the former sultanate. They were also large-scale exporters and ship owners that regularly sent junks to China, Brunei, Sumatra, Siam and Sunda.

On January 6, 1514, Tullah, as the Pengiran Temenggong, sailed back to Malacca for trade. It was noted by Rui de Brito Patalim, Captain-General of Malacca, who wrote to Dom Afonso de Albuquerque in Goa the following:

“Afterwards there arrived three junks from Burney. The people of this island are Luçoes, and from that land was the Tomungo (Temenggong) of this city (Malacca). Two of them belonged to the Luçoe merchants from there and one belonged to the said Tomungo. They brought merchandise and sold it. All courtesy was shown them and they were well treated. Of what they found, they laded the best they could. They left fully satisfied. They are good people and clever merchants. From our conversation and truthfulness they derived much pleasure, and they cleverly showed that this pleased them. They sailed with the monsoon from their country to trade in camphor and other articles. They had been wont to trade with Malacca aforetime, but could not live without this market, whence they take cloth of Cambaya and other merchandise. All these people (from the junks) are related to the Tomungo.” 134

This was the first visit of the Borneans to Malacca after its capture by the Portuguese, so it was an occasion of some importance. The Captain-General would seem to have conversed with them to considerable length, for he was obviously keen to reopen the Brunei-Malacca trade. The interesting fact emerges that, though from Brunei, all these people were related to the nobility of the Malacca Sultanante. It was a fact very accurate.

 On the same day Patalim wrote to King Manoel I:

“There came from Burneo to this city (Malacca) three junks, they brought seed pearls and provisions, in addition to other food stuffs. The King is a pagan, but the merchants are Moors. Borneo is a great island, which lies between China and the Moluccas. The people of that island call themselves Luçoes, they are good men and our friends. When trading here they always seek cloth from Cambaya and Quilis (Quilon) on the Malavar coast.” 135

According to Tomé Pires, the Portuguese assigned as the Supervisor of the Spice Trade in Malacca from 1512 to 1515, in his Suma Oriental, the trade between the Portuguese in Malacca and the merchants of Brunei, who were all men, since then was done every year.

The Islamization of Brunei

In the early part of 1515, seeing the economic development in Brunei, Sultan Muhammad Shah along with his fleets had decided to move in to Brunei. And for the first time seeing Kampong Ayer, they all exclaimed, “Baru nah!” which means “No we found it!” Sultan Muhammad Shah or Mahmud Shah was already famed even in Brunei as a cruel tyrant named by the Borneans as Sultan Makatunaw (“the sultan who can melt anything”). An ensuing fight followed between the armies of Brunei and of Sultan Muhammad Shah. Out-numbered, the datus and their armies retreated to other parts of Borneo or to the other islands. Sulayman retreated to Garang near Kuala Labu at the Temburong district not far from Brunei while Tullah retreated to Mindanao.

It must be at this time that the tale about the ten Bornean datus who rebelled against the Sultan and fled to Panay occured. In a Panay manuscript written on a goat-skin by the use of the juice of blackberry as ink (Tagalog “duhat” means blackberry while Malay “dawat or duwat” means ink), known as Maragtas, it is said that the ten Bornean datus led by Datu Puti, who wanted a free life, fled to the island of Panay and established a settlement at its plains at the mouth of the Irong-irong River in exchange of a golden saruk and a pearl necklace given to the Ati (Negro) rulers Hari Marikudo and Hara Maniwantiwan respectively who had moved to the mountains and then established a confederation called Madya-as which had a similar meaning with Madjapahit.

The Sultan who was then known as Awang Alak Betatar among his Buddhist and Hindu followers started, in disguise as a merchant, trading back with Malacca probably to spy and find ways to regain it back from the Portuguese. It was at this time that Tome Pires was informed by the Bornean merchants that the king of Brunei “became a Muslim”. Tome Pires also noted that:

“… it is not very long since the King became a Moor. They seem to be a trading people. The merchants are all men of medium stature, not very sharp witted. They trade with Malacca every year. It is a country with plenty of meat, fish, rice and sago.” 136

In the early part of 1517, Sultan Muhammad Shah sent an envoy named Pengiran Bendahara Seri Maharaja Parameswara (Pateh Berbai) to Bendahara Inderapura Surya Sri Amar DiRaja of his plan to sail to China for an annual tributeand probably to seek help in casting away the Portuguese from the region. Immediately, the bendahara paid the Portuguese 9000 cruzados in gold to retain his plantation of pepper.137 The Portuguese who did not know about the plan accepted the offer. From the said plantation 175 tons of pepper was harvested. It was embarked on one of the ships of the sultan that had arrived from Sumatra. But his fleet to China was somewhat guarded by the Portuguese who for the first time with their own fleet along with the sultan’s paid an official visit to the Chinese Empire. They arrived in China in the latter part of the year. 

Due to the Malaccan Sultan lodging a complaint against the Portuguese invasion to the Chinese Emperor, the Portuguese were greeted with hostility from the Chinese when they arrived in China. The Malaccans had informed the Chinese of the Portuguese seizure of Malacca, to which the Chinese responded with hostility toward the Portuguese; and the deception the Portuguese used, disguising plans for conquering territory as mere trading activities, and told of all the atrocities committed by the Portuguese. The Chinese Imperial Government imprisoned and executed multiple Portuguese envoys after torturing them in Guangzhou. After the Portuguese set up posts for trading in China and committed piratical activities and raids in China, the Chinese responded with the complete extermination of the Portuguese in Ningbo and Quanzhou. Tome Pires, a Portuguese trade envoy, was among those who died in the Chinese dungeons.138

On his return, in the early part of 1518, Sultan Muhammad Shah, who had intercepted a message that the “celestial fairy” was alive, immediately searched for the princess in the guise of propagating Islam. He forsook the ancient Buddhist capital at the mouth of the Lawas River and built a new all-Muslim capital on the present site, an action for which there were many precedents. No doubt there had certainly been some earlier settlement on the site of the new Palace at Kota Batu, as artifacts found there prove. He had even gone to Mindanao. According to the Magindanao and Sulu tarsilas, Sultan Muhammad Shah -- who was known as Nakhoda Ragam (“singing captain”), Sharif Kabungsuwan, Muhammad Kabungsuwan, and Rajah Baginda in Mindanao – converted most of the natives of Magindanao and Cotabato into Islam; nearly had a battle in Basilan but was surprised to know that there were already Muslims in the area; and he had learned in Sulu that there was already mosques and Muslim tombs erected and that there were already many Muslim preachers that came there, namely: Sharif Awliya, Tuan Mashaika, Abu Bakr, Kamal-ud-Din, and etc. There was even a certain Nur-ul-Alam or Alaۥ-ud-Din who was suspected to be a woman in manly disguise. According to the Johor traditions, the said princess had “a specially designed signet ring with large diamonds which she always wore on her finger for that ring was the ancient ring of Solomon handed down from generations to the descendants of Iskandar Dhul-Qarnayn (Cyrus the Great of Persia)” and could be detected by it amidst her manly disguise.

This Islamization process of Sultan Muhammad Shah must have started in 1515 but was magnified in 1518-1521 with a main purpose of getting a large number of combatants who would fight against the Christian Portuguese to eradicate them from the empire at the expense of so many lives. In the case of Tullah, he used the head-hunters of Borneo and Luzon as his front warriors who looked at head-hunting as sports or as a religious ritual in honor of the gods – among the Dyaks of Borneo for the pleasure of sports and for the Ifugaos of Luzon for offering to Cain who had beheaded Abel as a sacrifice to Kabuniyan.


The Lords of the Monsoons

It must be between October 1520 and March 1521, the northeast monsoon season, that Sultan Muhammad Shah had discovered the where-about of the “celestial fairy”. According to Cotabato and Sulu traditions, the “celestial fairy” had stayed in Sulu and disguised as Nur-ul-Alam or Alaۥ-ud-Din (titles of Tullah as successor to the throne of the Sulu sultanate which both means “light of God”). It was said that the princess, after being caught from her disguise, when asked by the courier in behalf of the Sultan her hand in marriage, replied that she would only marry a man who could accomplish three tasks – (a) he must win over the other suitors in hand-to-hand combat in Magindanao; (b) he must win over another man in the arnis or kali single-handedly since the fight would be over a single rope suspended above a pit full of crocodiles to serve as their ground and another in which they would hold, which was held in Cotabato; and (c) he must defeat the princess in a wrestling bout at the top of Mt. Tumangtangis, in Sulu. The three tasks showed the remarkable wisdom of the princess in finding ways not to be married with the Sultan. In the first task, it would be possible that all suitors would be killing each other and nobody would stay alive; in the second, at her behest no suitors could survive if she wished to by swinging the rope so that the fighting princes would fall and be eaten by the crocodiles; and the third, it was not really her who would fight in a wrestling bout but the last elephant of Sulu which was living at a swamp in Mt. Tumangtangis and had gone wild. Accordingly, the Sultan passed all the tasks. The princess was even astounded when the Sultan who was about to be trampled by an attacking wild elephant shot it with the “lightning” from his lantaka (a small Bornean cannon). In Malaccan version, the princess had spoken to the Sultan – “I will never marry a man who is as weak and cruel as to oppress his people and murder his own son.” Yet according to S’yair Awang Semaun, the princesswas kidnapped by the Sultan to Brunei; in Portuguese account, the princess was captured by Francisco Serrao while escaping to Tidor and was given to his liege lord, Prabu Udara who was no other than Sultan Muhammad Shah himself, as a gift; and according to Pigafetta, based on what he heard from the merchants, Sulu had been tributary to Brunei ever since the ruler of Brunei had seized the two great pearls of which he was so proud.139

The wedding had been scheduled which was set to take place in Sumatra (not Cebu), particularly in Minanga Tamwan (Minangkabau), the area around the upper reaches of the Kampar river system, in the southeastern part of the island. Minanga Tamwan was the original seat of the Srivijayan empire founded by Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa with his 20,000 troops (mainly land army and a few hundred ships) in the 7th century AD. It was called by the Arabs as Zabag or Zabaj and by the Chinese as Shepo (pronounced as "Jaba") or Shopo (pronouced as "Jobo"). Pigafetta called the place as "zZubu". It became the new seat of government, after Malacca, of the exiled sultan aside from being the most strategic central point for the people coming from north and south who would want to converge at the center or at most at the same distance at a period between the end of the northeast monsoon (amihan) and the beginning of the southwestern monsoon (habagat) which would be convenient for both sea-travelers from north and south – that is, the last week of March 1521. Thus, it is probable that the fleet of the Sultan had sailed to Kampar (not Cebu) in the second week of March.

Following the tradition of sea-farers, the Sultan and the princess must be married in the Sultan’s ship at the sea by an imam. Probably, Tullah had seen the coming of the Spaniards as a right timing to disrupt the wedding.

The Arrival of the Spaniards

At dawn of March 17, 1521 (Philippine time), the expedition of Fernan Magellan -- with only three ships left out of five which were the Trinidad, Concepcion, and Victoria -- by way of the Pacific Ocean entering the Philippine Sea had arrived back in Southeast Asia. The Spaniards first noticed the island of Samar but they cast anchored at another island which was Homonhon on the following day where they stayed for eight days and within that interval they had bartered trade with the native men, whose leader was an old man, from the island of Suluan. The said natives were described as tattooed; naked; wearing gold earrings, many gold armlets on their arms, kerchiefs about their heads, cotton cloth embroidered with silk wrapped around their waists; and used daggers, knives, spears ornamented with gold, large shields, cutlasses, javelins, and fishing nets. Obviously they were patrolling warriors as evident on their tattoos. Since there were many islands found in that region the Spaniards named it as the Archipelago of Saint Lazarus.

On the rainy afternoon of March 26 (Philippine time), while the galleons were on the point of weighing anchor, Antonio Pigafetta, the Venetian chronicler of the expedition, fell into the sea while he was walking at the yard to fish but he was able to hold on the clew garnet of the mainsail which was dangling in the water. As he cried out the natives in a small boat came and rescued him. Had it not, the story of the Battle of Medang (not Mactan) might not been told and known at present.140

Passing through the Sulu Sea, on the night of March 28 (Philippine time), a “fire” had been seen on an island of Borneo. It was a bonfire made by Abdullah Sulayman to cook the jungle fowls and other animals that they had caught from hunting at Kuala Labu in the district of Temburong not very far from his city of Garang, which was bigger than Brunei at that time.141

At sunrise of Good Friday, March 29, 1521 (Philippine time), Trenggana, who was with the flagship Trinidad, upon seeing the spectacular view of the sun burning into the background of a tranquil stretch of sand of an island, painting the sky in red, shouted joyfully – “Mas Sabah! Mas Sabah!” Mas Sabah is Malay for “golden Sabah” referring to Sabah, which is now disputed between Malaysia and the Philippines.  Sabah was so named after its beautiful sunrise; sabah is an Arabic word for sunrise; hence, literally mas sabah means golden sunrise. The chronicler then wrote in his journal that the name of the island of Borneo was Mazzava, sometimes Massana. Arabic “sabah” is synonymous to Malay “sana” or the Cebuano “sanag” (bright).

What the Spaniards saw was the present Brunei-Malaysia border –the Temburong District. From west to east, the Brunei–Malaysia border begins where the watershed of the Baram and Belait river basins meet the South China Sea at a point six nautical miles (11 km) east of Tanjung Baram with coordinates 4°35′20″N 114°5′00″E (4°35′20″N is either erroneously transcribed by some copyists of Pigafetta’s manuscript as 9°40′N from its rounded off coordinates of 4°40′ N or Pigafetta was using the Typus Orbis Terrarum map in which the northernmost tip of Borneo was located at 9°40′N 152°E). It then travels along the watershed of the two river basins for about 30 km to the Pagalayan Canal. It then goes a further 44 km to the Teraja Hills. From there, the border runs along the watershed between the Belait and Tutong rivers on one hand, and the Baram and Limbang (this is mentioned in Pigafetta’s account as Limban) rivers on the other hand. It then proceeds along the watershed of the Brunei and Limbang river basins till it reaches Brunei Bay.

The land border between Malaysia and Brunei's Temburong District (which is separated from the other part of Brunei) starts at the estuary of the Pandaruan River and runs the entire length of the river to its source. It then runs along the watershed between the Temburong River on one hand, and the Limbang and then the Trusan rivers on the other until it reaches Brunei Bay.142

After the Spaniards cast anchored near Kuala Labu, a vinta (or “baroto”) with nine datus in it approached the Trinidad and came alongside. To the surprise of everyone, Trenggana had spoken fluently with the said datus.

Seeing that the Bornean datus were unwilling to come aboard taking a position at a little distance, Magellan who was wishing to establish friendly relations with them, sent out a red cap and other things on a floating plank and was pleased to observe that they picked them up with signs of satisfaction. Immediately, the vinta sailed away to Kuala Labu and reported the incident to Abdullah Sulayman. Two hours later, two balangays full of warriors approached the Trinidad. “All these people were dark-complexioned, corpulent, and glistening from frequent applications of coconut oil. Their hair was jet black and fell to their waists, while their wild appearance was increased by their custom of carrying daggers, knives, spears, javelins, and shields which were ornamented with gold.” Abdullah Sulayman was in the larger balangay, “being seated under an awning of mats”.

Trenggana had conversed with Sulayman as the latter came nearer to the flagship but at a little distance. In the absence of translation it could be understood that what they had conversed was about his slavery under the Spaniard and his possible redemption. Under the code of a warrior if captured he must serve his master with honor until such a time that his freedom is given back by his master. Hence, Trenggana could not escape from his bondage. It is also very possible that Abdullah Sulayman had informed Trenggana about the Dayang’s fate and about his sister’s abduction by Sultan Muhammad Shah and her nearing forceful marriage to him. According to some Portuguese accounts, the princess had sent a letter, through her bird, to her mother the Sultan Batari on “not to worry about her for she would be married soon to the feared sultan” which could really mean in reverse – that is, she wanted to be rescued. Tullah might not be aware of that fact at that time had continued his search for the princess in Mindanao.

Abdullah Sulayman then ordered some of his men to go to the Trinidad, telling them that he would not stir from his boat rather than close to the flagship. Magellan made good cheer to those who came to the Trinidad and gave them many things. Wherefore Abdullah Sulayman wished to give Magellan a bar of massy gold, of a good size, and a basket full of ginger. But Magellan thanking the rajah greatly refused to accept the present. Hence, after the rajah’s men had returned to his long boat he immediately departed.

On Black Saturday, March 30, 1521 (Philippine time), Magellan sent Trenggana ashore to Sulayman, requesting him to cause, in return for his money, some provisions to be given for his ships telling him that he had come into his country, not as an enemy, but as a friend.

It is more probable than not that the Madjapahit crown prince, Trenggana, had revealed to the rajah, whom he knew so well, about Spain’s colonization of the islands through Magellan’s expedition. Perhaps the two of them were really planning on how to lay away an impending colonization. So, unknown to the Spaniards, Abdullah Sulayman had sent three of his datus to Mindanao particularly in Butuan to fetch Tullah immediately and prepare the fleets for battle.

Later, Abdullah Sulayman and Trenggana with the other six datus in the same vinta, boarded the Trinidad. Sulayman embraced Magellan, and gave him three porcelain jars covered with leaves and full of raw rice and two large fishes, and gave him also some other things. In return for this acceptable gift, Magellan gave the rajah a garment of red and yellow cloth made in the Turkish fashion and a fine red cap; and to the datus he gave to  some knives and to other mirrors. Then Magellan had them served a meal and had Abdullah Sulayman told through Trenggana his desire of becoming Sulayman’s blood-brother through a blood-compact which was called as kasi-kasi. To which the rajah replied that he too wished to be the same with him. Note that it was only a wish and nowhere to be found in Pigafetta’s account that they had done a blood compact which means that they had not really become blood-brothers.

Desirous of impressing the half-naked laksamana with his power and attainments, Magellan showed him his stock of arms and ammunition, his collection of weapons, artillery, armor, etc. He had some of the cannon discharged, at the sound of which the laksamana was greatly terrified, and two of his attendants leaped overboard.

Pigafetta described it in detail:

"Then the captain-general had a man encased in armor, and placed him in the midst of three others armed simply with swords and daggers, who struck him on all parts of the body without harming him. At this sight the king was rendered almost speechless, and when the captain-general told him that one of those armed men was worth a hundred of his own [the laksamana's] without defensive armor, he answered that was a fact. The captain-general said that he had two hundred men who were armed in that manner, and he showed the king his cuirasses, swords, bucklers, etc., and had a review conducted for him. Then he led him to the deck of the ship that is located above, at the stern, and had his sea-charts and compass brought. By means of them he explained how he had found the strait, in order to voyage thither, and how many moons he had been without seeing land, whereat the king was greatly astonished. Lastly, he told the king that he would like, if it were pleasing to him, to send two of his men with him so that he might show them some of his things. The king replied that he was agreeable, and I, Antonio Pigafetta, went with him in company with another.143

It was added moreover on other accounts that Magellan had made two of his men exercised at swordplay before the rajah. And showed him the marine chart and compass of his ship, telling him how he had found the strait by which to come hither, and the time which he had spent in coming, also how he had not seen any land.

It was the big mistake of Magellan in showing the rajah how his men fought and how many would be the equivalent of one Spaniard clad in full armor with the natives. He suggested to Abdullah Sulayman a ratio of 1:100 and revealed that he had 200 Spaniards clad in that armor which meant that the ratio needed by the rajah is 200:2000. It could be understood that he needed 2000 warriors to gather in his fleet for the impending battle.

Then lastly, Magellan asked the rajah whether it would please him if he sends two of his men to the country where he lived that he might show them what other things his country had. The rajah agreed. Magellan sent Trenggana and Antonio Pigafetta. They landed at Kuala Labu which was not very far from Garang, which was still in the Temburong district and was the actual residence of Abdullah Sulayman.

Pigafetta had given the details of the event that followed:

"When I had set foot on shore, the king raised his hands towards the sky and then turned to us, so that we did likewise. The he then took me by the hand, one of his notable men took my companion, and thus they led us under a bamboo covering, where there was an immense balanghai, that is to say, a boat of eighty feet or thereabouts in length, resembling a foist. There we sat down upon the stern of that great boat, constantly conversing by signs, and the king's men stood about us in a circle, armed with swords, daggers, spears, and bucklers.

"The king shortly had a dish of pork and a large jar of wine brought in, and at every mouthful we drank a cup of the wine. The king's cup was always covered, and no one drank of it save himself. Before he took the cup to drink he raised his clasped hands towards the sky, and then towards me. When he was about to drink, he extended the fist of his left hand towards me (so that at first I thought he was about to strike me), and then drank. I did the same, and so far as possible went through the same performance. I learned that they always make those signs when they drink together." 144

Note that Abdullah Sulayman was never mentioned to eat pork and he even had a separate cup for drinking which was solely for his own use avoiding mixing it with the food and wine contaminated with the oil and gravy from the pork.

After the meal was over, Pigafetta employed himself in writing down as many words of his host's language as he could obtain; but not much time was allowed him, for soon the supper-hour arrived and the feasting was resumed. Two large porcelain dishes were brought in, one full of boiled rice, and the other of pork with its broth and gravy. Pigafetta continued:

"We ate with the same signs and ceremonies as before, after which we went to the king's 'palace,' which was built like a hay-loft, set up high from the ground on great posts, and was thatched with banana and palm leaves. To reach the banquet-hall it was necessary to ascend by means of ladders, and once there the king made us sit down, on a bamboo mat, with our feet drawn up like tailors.

 "After a long delay, a platter of broiled fish was brought in, also green ginger and wine. The king's eldest son (Karim), who was the prince, sat down near us, and then two platters of fish and rice were brought, so that we might also eat with him. We were already full to repletion, and my companion became intoxicated as the result of so much drinking. The torches, which are made of gums of a tree called Anime wrapped in leaves of palm, now burned low, with flickering light, and the king made us a sign that he was going to sleep. He left the prince with us, and we slept with him on a bamboo mat with pillows made of leaves.145

At dawn, Tullah and the three datus had arrived while Pigafetta was still sleeping. Abdullah Sulayman then woke up Pigafetta and took him by the hand and brought him to the dining hall to partake of refreshments. Abdullah Sulayman introduced Tullah to Pigafetta as “Si Ayu” of Butuan and Caraga – the said places in Mindanao were the ancient ship-building capital of the Madjapahit Empire – who “had just came to visit him and to hunt in Kuala Labu”. Since 1978, remnants of balangays are excavated in Butuan and other parts of the Caraga Region.146 Pigafetta named the laksamana as Raia Siaiu instead of Awang Si Ayu on presumption that all rulers of the islands were rajahs without knowing that there was an existing ranking system and mistakenly named Abdullah Sulayman – who was the laksamana’s cousin, father-in-law, and blood-brother -- as Raia Colambu or Calambu which was obviously a corruption of Kuala Labu which was the name of the place and a confusion of an entry word kulambu in his journal which referred to a mosquito net. It was obvious that there was a misunderstanding between the interpreter and the Italian who were both not fluently acquainted with the Portuguese language. For the Latin-speaking people, Portuguese was the most difficult language. Trenggana only spoke in pidgin Portuguese while Pigafetta was an Italian who found Portuguese a difficult language and even experienced more difficulty in understanding Trenggana’s. When the boats sent by Magellan to fetch Pigafetta and Trenggana had arrived, the two envoys of Magellan departed. And as they departed, Abdullah Sulayman kissed the hands of Pigafetta and Trenggana. Probably he only wanted to kiss the hand of Trenggana but the latter might had ordered him through a signal to kiss Pigafetta’s hand too to avoid suspicion. Tullah and the three datus came with them to the Trinidad.

Tullah had been described by Pigafetta as follows:

"According to their customs he was very grandly decked out; and the most handsome man that we saw among those people. His hair was exceedingly black, and hung to his shoulders, with a silk veil on his head and two large golden earrings fastened in his ears; he wore a cotton cloth all embroidered with silk, which covered him from the waist to the knees; at his side hung a dagger, the handle of which was very long and all gold, and its scabbard of carved wood; he had three spots of gold on every tooth, and his teeth appeared as if bound with gold; he was perfumed with storax and benzoin; he was olive-skinned and tattooed all over." 147

Tullah had told Magellan that pieces of gold of the size of walnuts and eggs were found by sifting the earth in his island which were Butuan and Caraga (referring to the whole island of Mindanao seen as two islands at that time since it is divided by the Agusan River) and all his dishes were of gold and also some portion of his house.

As the following Monday, April 1, 1521 (Philippine time), the eve of Tullah’s birthday, Magellan resolved to celebrate the double event in a manner to impress the Abdullah Sulayman and all his people. He sent his chaplain ashore, with Trenggana to inform the Abdullah Sulayman of his intention to perform a religious ceremonial, but not to dine with him, or visit.

The rajah at once consented to the landing of the soldiers, fifty of whom, without armor, but carrying their muskets and side-arms paraded on the beach in front of the palace. Before they reached the shore six cannon had been fired "as a sign of peace," and the two laksamanas embraced Magellan ardently.

From the sea to Kuala Labu, in the Temburong District of Brunei, can be seen the three hills at the border called at present as the Bornean Triangle -- Long Pasia, Long Bawan and Long Semadoh. Based on the S’yair Awang Semaun, the laksamana went up the hill of Bawan (Long Bawan) – interestingly, at present the said place is predominantly Christian amidst the threats of unprecedented attacks of the ethnic tribe known as Orang Asli – hence, Long Bawan was really the one chosen by Magellan and Tullah. 142

With Tullah and Abdullah Sulayman on either side, Magellan marched his men to a place selected for the ceremonies, and before they commenced sprinkled his royal companions with musk water, at which they were well pleased. They even kissed the cross, when it was elevated, and with clasped hands fell on their knees and worshipped this, probably not the first, Christian symbol they had ever seen. Northern Borneo had already been visited by Catholic and Nestorian priests since the 13th century – probably tolerance of any religion had been exercised within the sultanate though Islam was its official religion. In this account it was clearly manifested that Tullah had really embraced Syrian Christianity introduced to him by Jaۥfar. Yet on the other hand, it is also possible that Tullah and Abdullah Sulayman did that either from deference to their guests or as part of a grand deception plan in toppling down the invaders and not because of any real sentiment of religion. When asked by Magellan whether they were Mohammedans or heathens, Tullah answered: “There is no god but God,” – this is the first line professed by every Muslim and Syrian Christian – but it differed on the second line since after the blood-brothers raised their clasped hands and facing the sky they said, “We call him Abba!” Among the Muslim, the second line must be, “… and Muhammad is the Apostle of God.” It might be possible that Tullah had been fully converted to Syrian Christianity or he might be another example of an unorthodox Muslim who had incorporated the Christian doctrine into his Islamic concept of God like his belief in a Nur-ul-Allah (“light of God”) – a belief that Adam as Nallah (hermaphrodite) was the child of Nur Allah (Sky Father) and Nur Ahut (Earth Mother); hence, Adam was both the father and mother of Eve -- which other Muslims would say not found in the Koran but being preached by the Sufi Muslims in Java. The belief in Nur-ul-Allah or Nur- Muhammad, according to other Muslims, is a conflation of Christian beliefs in Christ incorporated to Islam which is contrary to the teachings of Koran. But whatever it is, it could be understood that Tullah was not a fundamentalist or extremist Muslim and what he had was just a simple belief in God existing above the sky – probably he was a practicing Jew as his ancestors were.

Thereat Magellan was very glad, and, seeing that, Tullah raised his hands to the sky and said that he wished if it were possible for him to make the strangers see his love for him. Magellan replied that he did not doubt his love, and to prove it he was going to ask of him a great favor. He desired permission to set up the cross they had brought on the summit of a hill overlooking the harbor, where it should be not only a sign of possession taken in the name of his dread sovereign, but as a token of amity between them. Magellan's real reason, doubtless, for the raising of the cross in such a conspicuous place, lay in the fact that such an act signified actual possession, and allegiance on the part of the natives to the king he served. But he veiled his real motives in the religious ceremony, and he told the laksamanas, through Trenggana, "that he wished to set it up in that place for their benefit, for whenever any of our ships came they would know that we had been there by this cross, and would do nothing to displease them or harm their property. If any of their men were captured, they would be set free immediately, on that sign being shown; and it was necessary to place it on the highest hill or mountain, so that on seeing it every morning they might adore it; and if they did that, neither thunder, lightning, nor storms would harm them in the least”. The brothers thanked him heartily, and said they “would do everything he wished most willingly”.

Near the shore, and overlooking the harbor, rose a verdant, palm-dotted hill with a smooth and rounded crown. It was a site most fit for the erection of that holy symbol of Christianity, and there Magellan resolved to place it. The said hill was Long Bawan, for aside that it met the geographical description it was associated with the legends about Awang Si Ayu (Simaun – it is derived from the Malay prefix “si” which is both used to denote a leader or a district; “magayun” which means beautiful or handsome; “mayun” or “maayu”, good or excellent; and “ayu”, light or bright; he was called in the Legaspi expedition’s account as “Simaggio”, that is “Si Maayu” ). With a host of natives in the van, breaking a path through the tangled tropical vegetation, and himself leading his fifty soldiers, Magellan ascended the hill soon to be made sacred to the religion he professed. The two blood-brothers accompanied him, and while the trio stood apart, watching the proceedings with deep interest, the soldiers detailed for the purpose dug a deep hole and set the cross in position. Less than eight years previously, Balboa, on the isthmus of Darien, had marked with a cross the site from which he had first viewed the Pacific, and now it was Fernan Magellan's privilege, in these far-distant isles of the same ocean, to confirm his sovereign's possession of that vast body of water which he was the first to cross.

A gilded crown surmounted the cross, and both together typified the spiritual and material sovereignty which Magellan, as a faithful subject of his king and true soldier of the faith, was desirous to extend and to confirm. After it was in position, he reverently knelt at the foot of the cross, and with his soldiers, also on bended knees, listened to the invocation by his chaplain. The moment it was finished a musket was fired, as a signal to the ships, and their cannon boomed a salutation. Volleys of musketry responded from the hill, and, amid dense clouds of smoke, the party descended to the plain at its base, where the soldiers performed martial evolutions and fought a sham battle, greatly to the edification of all the people, who were loath to allow their guests to depart.

Inquiring for larger and richer islands, at which he might carry on a profitable trade, Magellan was told that one of the wealthiest of these was Zabaj (not Cebu), and that there he might obtain the gold and spices he desired, in exchange for his stock of goods in the ships. When he asked for pilots to Zabaj (Shopo or Zubu in Chinese account), he was told that none was to be had for love or for money, but that if he would wait till the kings had harvested their rice crops one or both of them would go with him gladly. So Magellan not only waited two days, but sent men to aid the farmer kings in gathering their crops. But “the kings were so hospitable to the laborers that all, including themselves, were overcome, it is said, by the liquor they drank, and a further delay ensued”.

Delaying tactic was always a part of the art of war. Tullah together with the nine datus after gathering fleets had already sailed ahead towards Java in preparation of a battle that was already planned. It must be understood that during that period the fleets from Mindanao had already arrived in Kampar, Sumatra in preparation of the imperial coronation and wedding ceremony. The Sultan must be informed ahead for the impending problem of Spanish colonization. Trenggana, the crown prince of Madjapahit, had to stay with the Spaniards to avoid suspicion and to serve as a spy. But he too, above all as the real crown prince, must be saved in the end.

The Christianization of Zabaj by Sword and Fire

A final departure was made on the fifth day of April (Philippine time), and, while some uncertainty existed as to the points previously touched at by Magellan, all doubts were removed from the time the royal pilots took the helms, as they steered a straight course for the island of Sumatra (not Cebu). Many wonders were seen on the way, the observer stated that among the most astonishing being the "flying-foxes," or frugiverous bats, "as large as eagles," the flesh of which, he said, tasted like chicken. Besides turtle-doves and parrots, which were in swarms on certain islands, he mentioned those wonderful birds, the megapodes, or "mound birds," which lay their large eggs in a mound of decaying vegetation, by the heat of which they were hatched. The voyage must have been a leisurely one to have enabled the observer to note these objects by the way.

The port of Kampar (in southeastern Sumatra) was reached on April 8th (Philippine time) and entered with flying colors. Pigafetta related it as follows:

"On approaching the city, the captain-general ordered the ships to fling out their banners. The sails were lowered, as if for battle, and all the artillery was discharged” -- an action which caused great fear to those people. The captain-general then sent a foster-son of his (Joao Serrao) as ambassador to the King of Cubu (particularly the Minangkabau Kingdom was referred as Cubu and not Cebu), with the interpreter (Trenggana a.k.a. Enrique de Malacca). When they reached the city they found a vast crowd of people gathered about the king and trembling in fear from the noise of the lombards. The interpreter informed them that it was our custom, when entering a strange port, to discharge all our cannon, not only as a sign of peace and friendship, but in honor of the king. They were then reassured, but the king remarked that this was a strange custom, and then asked what it was our captain wanted. The interpreter replied that his master was the greatest captain in the world, and was going to the Moluccas by a new route he had discovered; but that he had digressed on the way, in order to visit the King of Cubu, because of the good report received from the King of Mazzava (Sabah). The king told him he was come in good time, but that it was the custom for all strange ships that entered his ports to pay him tribute, and that it was but four days since a junk which had come from Siam, laden with slaves and gold, had done so. In proof of this statement he pointed to the merchant in charge of the junk, who was present at the time. The interpreter told the king that since his master was the captain of so great a monarch, he did not pay tribute to any seignior in the world, but on the contrary exacted tribute from others. If the king wished for peace, he would have peace; but if war instead, then war it should be!” 148

Thereupon the Shahbandar, who according to the Syair Awang Semaun was a Chamese hired by the Sultan for his intelligence, advised the Sultan to tell the Spanish colonizers that he (the Sultan) was their ruler by saying in Malay: “Kata raia kita.” (“Tell them that you are our king.”)

At that time the people of Southeast Asia called Thailand as Siam; Syria as Syam; and the people of Champa as Cham. Champa at that time was vassal to Madjapahit. It had done intermarriages among the royal class of Java. And it had a strong politico-economic alliance with Sumatra since the attack of the Vietnamese at Vijaya, the capital of the kingdom of Champa. But after the fall of Malacca to the Portuguese, Sultan Muhammad Shah had gained foothold at Sumatra and from there he was reconquering what had been lost. Abu Bakr who was declared by the Sulu tarsilas to have “passed away” in 1480 might not mean to have died but to have gone to other land which was his motherland, which is Champa, but was forced back to his fatherland (Sumatra) to seek military assistance in stopping the Vietnamese who was conquering his kingdom.

Then the said adviser, the Shahbandar, further reminded the Sultan, “These men are the same as those who have conquered Calicut, Malacca, and all Greater India. If they are treated well, they will give good treatment in return; but if evil, then evil treatment, and worse, as they have done to Calicut and Malacca.”

Trenggana had told the Sultan that Magellan’s king, the King of Spain, was more powerful even than the King of Portugal -- that he was the ruler over Spain, and emperor of other countries, and that if he did not care to be his friend, next time would be sent so many men that they would destroy him.

The Sultan answered that he would deliberate with the ruma bechara, his council. Then he had refreshments served, of many dishes, contained in porcelain platters, besides several jars of wine. After that the Spanish envoys and Trenggana returned to the Trinidad and told everything that was spoken.

The upshot of long negotiations which ensued was that the Sultan, the Riayat Umabong, sent Magellan a drop of blood from his right arm, with the request that he do the same for him, in token of blood-brotherhood. This was done, and thus amicable relations were at once established. Karim, the eldest son of Abdullah Sulayman described in Pigafetta’s account as “a prince of pleasing manners and countenance”, was dispatched to treat with Magellan on board his ship. He was received with great honors, and seated beside Magellan in a red velvet chair, while his companions, the bendahara of Java, the constable, and eight datus, reclined on mats spread upon the deck.

Asked if they were empowered to make peace, they answered they were. Then Magellan, “who was ever seeking opportunities to further the cause of religion, made an impassioned speech upon the delights of peace, and declared himself an apostle of the Prince of Peace, whose humble servant even was his great and mighty king. He told them of God, who made the sky, the earth, the sea, and ‘all that in them is.’ He informed them that all people living were descended from Adam and Eve, our first parents, and what seemed very strange and new to them -- that every one has an immortal spirit. The good are to be rewarded, he said, and the bad condemned to the pit of fire everlasting.”

These simple children of nature seemed greatly impressed by Magellan's eloquence, and by the arguments he advanced in proof that his religion was the "only true one," and that they should promptly embrace it for the good of their souls. They requested him to allow at least two of his company to remain among them, in order to teach them the true faith; but Magellan replied that he could not do so then, though he had with him a priest of the Most High God who, if they would consent to become Christians, would baptize them in His name. They answered that they would first speak to their king, and that then, doubtless, they would all become Christians, "at which words we all wept for joy," says the chevalier.

Pigafetta related in details:

"The captain-general told them that they should not become Christians from fear, or to please us, merely, but of their own free wills; and that he would not cause any displeasure to those who wished to live according to their own law; but that the Christians would be better regarded and treated than the others! Then all cried out, with one voice, that they were not becoming Christians through fear, or to please us, but of their own free will. Then the captain-general told them that if they became Christians he would leave with them a suit of armor—for so his king had commanded him to do; and he further assured them that if they became Christians the devil would no longer appear to them, except in the last moment at their death.

They said that they could not answer the beautiful words he had spoken, but that they placed themselves in his hands, and that he should consider them as his most faithful servants. Then our captain embraced them, weeping, and clasping one of the prince's (Karim) hands, and one of the King of Mazzava's (Abdullah Sulayman), between his own, he said to them that, by his faith in God and to his sovereign, the emperor, and by the habit of Santiago, which he wore, he promised to give them perpetual peace with the King of Spain." 149

Refreshments were served, and presents exchanged, the prince offering Magellan a few baskets of rice, some swine, fowls, and goats, with apologies for the meanness of the gift. Magellan replied that the essence of the gift was the spirit that prompted it, and then gave Karim a red cap, a web of linen, some strings of beads, and an elegant drinking-cup of gilded glass, besides minor presents to his followers. To the Sultan he sent, through Karim, a gorgeous robe of silk, "made in Turkish style " -- that is, long and flowing; a fine red cap, or fez, two of the gilded drinking-cups, and a great many strings of beads, in a beautiful silver dish.

Magellan did not confine himself to the imparting of religious instruction only, but sent a large stock of goods ashore and opened a shop, or market, for barter. Trade was good from the first, and the people were ready to fight for such articles as they were in need of, giving gold for bronze and iron, almost weight for weight. For the less valuable things they gave in barter goats and kids, pigs, fowl, and rice, so that the ships of the fleet once more abounded in plenty. These people were very fair in their dealings, for "they lived in justice, and gave good weights and measures." Their scale was an extremely simple contrivance, consisting of a spear-shaft suspended in the middle by a cord, with a bronze basin hung by three strings to one arm, and a piece of lead, to balance it, on the other. So lavish were they of their gold and precious stones, that Magellan issued an order forbidding promiscuous trading by the sailors, as "there were some who would have given all they had for a small amount of gold, and would soon have spoiled the trade forever."

When the much-vaunted Sultan was finally discovered to Magellan he was found to be “a short and squatty individual, exceedingly corpulent, and with face and body hideously tattooed; seated on a palm-mat spread upon the ground, and his costume was so scant as scarcely to merit mention, consisting of a silk kerchief round his head, a breech-clout, and a necklace of precious stones; and in his ears were rings of gold set with valuable gems.” He was eating turtle eggs from porcelain dishes and drank the palm-wine from an earthen jar by means of small hollow reeds, like straws. He looked up from his repast as the strangers entered the pavilion in which he sat, glanced at the gifts, kissed them, and then ordered eggs and wine for his guests. Not a word would he listen to until they had finished the repast, when he wiped his lips, clapped his hands for a servant to remove the empty jars and dishes, and announced himself as ready for business.

He listened attentively to what Karim said about the white man's religion, and assented to his proposition to embrace it. Then he clapped his hands again, and four young girls appeared who danced gracefully before the king and his guests, while playing upon sweet-toned Chinese gongs. After this recreation had been indulged in, his majesty declared he must sup, and invited the party to remain; but finally accepted their excuses and allowed them to return to the ship. There they found that two of the sailors had died, and again seeking audience of the Sultan, secured his permission to consecrate a certain space in the centre of the town as a cemetery, and inter their comrades therein.

The funeral ceremonies were made as elaborate as possible, and the Sultan, who pretended to be duly impressed, “promised” to become a Christian on the following Sunday. When the holy day arrived a platform was erected in the consecrated square, decorated with palm-leaves and silken hangings, and here Magellan and Sultan Muhammad Shah met by appointment. The captain-general came ashore with an escort of forty musketeers, two of whom only were in complete armor, and when he landed on Java soil all the cannon of the fleet were fired in salute. The Sultan and Magellan embraced, then went together to the platform in the square, where they seated themselves in two chairs, one lined with red velvet for the captain-general, and the other in violet for his majesty.

The Sultan felt that he was between Scylla and Charybdis. Though he was a Muslim his constituents in Java were mostly Hindu. The people would retaliate if he changed his policy of religious tolerance within the sultanate. But challenging against the Spaniards meant real destruction and annihilation of the city. The Sultan was adjured to worship the cross which Magellan caused to be planted in the square, and he promised. He was told that he must also burn all the idols, which were made of either wood or clay, in the city which actually represented the ruler and his ancestors. Some were of wood, some of clay. If he would follow the suggestions of Magellan then his image to his Buddhist and Hindu followers as a god-king would be doomed.

The Sultan was finding an alibi in order not to be Christianized or a reason that he could convey to his subjects of accepting Christianity.

The Sultan, through Trenggana, declared that he very much desired to become a Christian but there were some datus under him who objected. They were very bad men, he said, and, what was more to the point, they were so strong that he feared he could not bring them to reason – these “native datus” were actually Tullah and Fatah who played great roles in this war game and the place being referred was Medang (not Mactan), the naval base of the Madjapahit Empire. What Magellan did not know was that the act of the Sultan was part of a drama in deceiving him to go in the battlefield which had long been planned. But what the Sultan did not know also was the plan of Tullah in rescuing the “celestial fairy” from him.

"Send for them," commanded Magellan, "and I will reason with them." They were sent for, and came, though reluctantly, a 10-year old envoy, Tugao – the son of Jaۥfar and adopted son of Tullah who was known in Cebuano traditions as Malingin, “which means round”, who was later renamed as Sulayman – with two goats as gifts from his father Tullah. Then the boy handed a letter, written on a goat-skin, from Tullah to Magellan saying that “he could not give an abundant gift since he was oppressed severely by a ‘Raya Si Kuala Labu’ who was breathing defiance against the King of Spain”. 

There was a passage in Sejarah Kabupaten Cirebon that was retrieved on January 16, 2013 which stated that "on April 2, 1482, Sharif Hidayatullah stated that Cirebon would no longer send tribute to Pajajaran (referring to the kingdom of Medang as located between two rivers)." It could not be possible that it happened on that date since Tullah at that time was still an infant. But taking into consideration that the calculation of year in Saka calendar and the Javanese chronogram for its conversion into Christian Era by just simply adding 78 is wrong and making the date as April 2, 1521 which is really more probable then the place referred to Pigafetta as the rajahnate of Tullah was the Sultanate of Cirebon which was ruled by Tullah, using 1521 as the focal point, from 1518 until 1607. The issue on tribute or tax collection might be related to the ones stated in the inscriptions of the four copperplates known as Prasasti Kebantenan I-IV. Tullah who was a devout Muslim might not want to continue on financially supporting the practice of Hinduism in the palace complex.

Tullah was written by Pigafetta as Zula which is another variant aside from Dullah, Dhullah, Dula, Dzullah and Tuah while “Raya Si Kuala Labu” means “the rajah who has come from Kuala Labu” but misinterpreted by Pigafetta as a name and wrote it as “Raia Cilapulapu”. Or perhaps it was really a misspelling of one of the royal titles originally held by Raden Abdul Rahman which were Ki Ageng Abdurahman or Ki Ageng Sela, which might probably also referred to the exact place where he was at that time -- that is, at Sela, a village near the present-day Demak. The title Ki Ageng Sela had been also used by Tullah after he succeeded his grandfather who was burned by the village fire set by Duarte  Barbosa. The said royal title was associated with the possession of a ball lightning known as nur zila (zila might be equivalent to kilat in Cebuano which means "lightning") which made the possessor too strong to break even prison cell and chain as mentioned in local legends. Medang at this time as it was converted into Islam was also named as Mataram. 

Magellan instructed the boy, through Trenggana, to tell them that unless they promised allegiance to the rajah and to the King of Spain he would have them killed. He threatened to enforce compliance with fire and with sword.

Unknown to Magellan, the Sundanese Sri Baduga Maharaja (literally means Srivijayan Emperor) who was no other than Raden Abdul Rahman himself had sent his grandson, Tullah (the Crown Prince of Srivijaya) to Malacca (which was under the command of Dom Jorge de Albuquerque) in 1512 and again in 1521 in order to invite the Portuguese to sign a peace treaty, to trade in pepper, and to build a fort at his main port of Sunda Kelapa. It was during the absence of Tullah that Duarte Barbosa and his men had plundered and burned down the city. Raden Abdul Rahman and his family, the royal minister, and all of the people working in the harbor, lost their lives. Most of the city was destroyed, as the reinforcements sent in from Pakuan realized that their forces were too weak and retreated. It was too late when Tullah with his 1,452 troops from the Cirebon-Demak alliance came. 

The Sultan found himself trapped with Magellan’s eagerness to convert him pretended to Magellan that his “idols” were very dear to him, and he could hardly make up his mind to their destruction and told him that one of his nephews was sick unto death, and if he offended his gods, he certainly would die. Magellan told him to burn his idols, believe in Christ, have the sick man baptized, and he would soon recover. If he did not, they could take his head, which he offered as a pledge. A procession was formed from the great square to the house of Tullah, the afflicted man, in which Magellan according to Pigafetta’s account was sweating profusely out of fear, where he was found in such a serious condition as to be able neither to speak nor move. He and all his family were baptized, including his two wives and ten daughters, and then, when asked by Magellan how he felt, he replied that, by the grace of the Christian's God, he felt very well indeed! There was a hint in Pigafetta’s account that he was baptized as Santiago.

This “miracle” -- for thus it was considered -- was the means of overcoming all the scruples of his majesty, which then consented to be baptized, and repeated after Magellan that he would ever prove faithful to his majesty the King of Spain, swearing thereto before an image of the Virgin Mary, and in the presence of his followers. The “celestial fairy was baptized and called Juana, after the mother of Charles I; the Sultan received the baptismal name of Don Carlos, after the emperor himself; the Sultan’s nephew, the prince of Luzon, was called Don Fernando; Abdullah Sulayman, John (which was actually Jehan in Pigafetta's account, rather than Juan, which was more obviously a Muslim title of a king instead of a Christian name); and the Shahbandar who was called by Pigafetta as “Moro from Siam” which in fact was not from Siam but a Cham, Christopher. In all, more than eight hundred people were "converted" to Christianity and were baptized, in a single morning, after which the ships discharged their lombards, the musketeers their arquebuses, and the king and the captain-general embraced each other like “brothers”. For the part of the Buddhists who were baptized like the “celestial fairy” their conversion could be sincere but for the Muslims like the Sultan it could be a cliché and only by name.

Moreover, it could also be very probable that the Madjapahit royal entourage had looked at it not as a mere and simple baptism but it was a coronation and wedding ceremony of the rulers in their new royal titles. That baptism rite had only a little difference between the coronation and wedding rite of Srivijaya and Madjapahit – that is instead of a Muslim imam or a Hindu-Buddhist priest, the ceremony was officiated by a Catholic priest. But the Sri Pada was there translating for the local audience probably not en tutu but in the traditional Madjapahit way of crowning rulers. Therefore, all the Madjapahit rulers looked at it as coronation and wedding rites of their new emperor and empress. It was from that union that the Sultan assumed the imperial titles of “Pati Unus”, “Adipati Yunus”, “Prabu Udara”, “Hari Habagat”, “Riayat Umabong”, and “Amir-ul-Umara” – titles which are all means “emperor of the southwest monsoon” – after marrying the “Damhara Amihan” which means “empress of the northeast monsoon” whose Spanish Christian name Juana would sound as a shortened form of Tribhuana while her Italian Christian name Jehane as appeared in Pigafetta's account would sound similar to Dewani a Malay term for a goddess or celestial fairy; and his rule over Madjapahit Empire became legitimate. The said imperial titles akin to the monsoons were used as imperial titles in Southeast Asia during that period. At that time, the region was known as Zîrbâdât (Zabaj) which means in Arabic as “the lands below the monsoons”. It was believed that both the emperor and the empress of the region were possessors of the powerful “monsoons’ orbs”. In Oriental concept, the monsoons are sea-dragons. Among the Muslims in Sulu the said pearls were known as the “Pearls-of-Allah”.

The “celestial fairy” was described by Pigafetta as:

“The queen was young and beautiful, and was entirely covered with a white and black cloth; her mouth and nails were very red, while on her head she wore a large hat of palm leaves in the manner of a parasol, with a crown about it of the same leaves, like the tiara of the pope; and she never goes any place without one of these crowns.” 150

Probably the said crown was not really a crown but a saruk (salakot in Tagalog), a palm hat used to protect against the heat of the sun. Or probably it was the golden saruk which was believed by the Borneans as magical and was owned by the goddess of the northeast monsoon or the north wind who was also a goddess of rice. But being considered as a “celestial fairy”, she might really be wearing the Kinnari crown traditionally used in Champa, Cambodia, and Thailand. The said “celestial fairy” might be using lipsticks to redden her lips and not by chewing too much betel nut since lipstick was already in used in Sulu during this period, including manicure. During the time of Xerxes of Persia, cosmetics was already in used and practiced by women especially the queens and princesses. The “celestial fairy” or the damhara amihan was clearly wearing either the baju kebaya based on the detailed description of Pigafetta or the ao dai.

The earliest form of Kebaya originates in the court of the Javanese Madjapahit Kingdom as a means to blend the existing female Kemban, torso wrap of the aristocratic women to be more modest and acceptable to the newly adopted Islam religion. Aceh, Riau and Johor Kingdoms and Northern Sumatra adopted the Javanese style kebaya as a means of social expression of status with the more alus or refined Javanese overlords. The name of Kebaya as a particular clothing type was noted by the Portuguese when they landed in Indonesia. Kebaya is associated with a type of blouse worn by Indonesian women in 15th or 16th century. Prior to 1600, kebaya on Java island were considered as a sacred clothing to be worn only by royal family, aristocrats (bangsawan) and minor nobility, in an era when peasant men and many women walked publicly bare-chested. Slowly it naturally spread to neighboring areas through trade, diplomacy and social interactions to Malacca, Bali, Sumatra, Borneo, Sulawesi and the Sultanate of Sulu and Mindanao -- Javanese kebaya as known today.151

These maidens accompanied the queen in order to carry her triple crowns made of palm-straw, like a tiara, of which she displayed several, besides the one she wore on her head. In other account the crowns brought by the two handmaidens were put on plates. Thus, it could be probable that those were not actually crowns but coverings for the two great pearls that were put on plates and were carried by the handmaidens wherever the “celestial fairy” would go.

Following the example of the Sultan, the “celestial fairy”, who must be a Buddhist and had not been converted to Islam, abandoned her idols entirely, but begged Magellan to give her a carved wooden image of Jesus, which he did gladly, telling her to keep it in their place. He then sprayed her with perfumes, and also her women, at which they were exceedingly delighted. The queen might had looked at it as the image of Maitreya, the final and true transcendental Buddha while her people who were mostly Hindus looked at it as Bhattara Guru, the supreme deity in Hindu pantheon.

The Blow of the Sudden Storm

A terrible thing happened that shocked the entire Madjapahit royal court and the sultanates:

a)    The graveyards which were considered sacred were excavated and looted with all its treasures.

b)    Buddhist and Hindu temples were destroyed, looted, and burned.

c)   The mosque and house of Abdul Rahman (Brawijaya V) who was called Bulaya (Budaya) in Pigafetta’s account had also been plundered by the Spanish soldiers led by Magellan then burned it to the ground, leaving behind a cross, the duplicate of one which was erected in the consecrated square of the capital. According to Javanese legends Abdul Rahman who had two wives was trapped in his burning palace. This legend is corroborated with Pigafetta’s account which stated that the city of Bulaya (which most probably referring to Ratu Boko or Bhumi Sambhara Budhara, the original name of Borobudur as suggested by the historian Casparis) was plundered and burned down and its ruler was killed when his house was burnt by the Spaniards. Pigafetta even narrated the burial ceremony of Abdul Rahman:

“When one of their chief dies: first, all the principal women of the place go to the house of the deceased. The deceased is placed in the middle of the house in a coffin. Ropes are placed about the box in the manner of a palisade, to which many tree branches are attached. In the middle of each branch hangs a cotton cloth; each one sits by a girl who fans her with a palm-leaf fan. The other women sit about the room sadly. Then there is one woman who cuts of the hair of the deceased very slowly with a knife. Another, who was the principal wife of the deceased, lies down upon him, and places her mouth, her hands, and her feet upon those of the deceased; when the former is cutting off the hair, the latter weeps, and when the former finishes the cutting, the latter sings. There are many porcelain jars containing fire about the room, and myrrh, storax, and benzoin, which make a strong scent through the house, are put on the fire. They keep the body in the house for five or six days during those ceremonies; I believe that the body is anointed with camphor. Then they bury the body within the coffin, which is shut by means of wooden nails in a kind of box and covered and enclosed by logs of wood.” 152

d)    The fifty virgin princesses who were daughters of different royalties that attended the Madjapahit wedding-coronation-baptism ceremony were all raped and killed by the men of Duarte Barbosa, the brother-in-law of Magellan.

This heinous act by Magellan and his men was unforgivable beyond imagination among the rulers and constituents alike. It had broken any vows of brotherhood and alliance. The battle plan that was laid off and suspended was resumed and started.

The war ritual invoking the twelve divinities of the sun-god Surya and the four divinities of the wind-god Wahyu was conducted, which was not understood by the colonizers. It was a war dance of Sulu which was the original sinulog, which might be mistaken with the Kaamatan, the rice harvest festival of Sabah which was associated with a ritual dance communicating the spirit of Huminodun, the rice-goddess who was cut into small pieces by her father Kinoingan in order to save the people who were suffering from great famine. This ritual was perfectly described by Pigafetta:  

“These people consecrated their swine in a strange ceremony performed by two old women. They first went around the city beating gongs, and carrying two standards made of palm bark. When they had assembled a crowd in the great square, they spread cloths upon the ground and made obeisance to the sun. The hog to be killed and consecrated was bound and placed upon the cloths. Then one of the old women blew a trumpet of bamboo, which she carried; the other bound upon her head a pair of horns, in imitation of those the devil is supposed to wear, and, dancing and blowing her trumpet, called out to the sun. After dancing and trumpeting about the doomed animal for half an hour they were presented with a cup of wine, from which one of them sprinkled the hog in the region of his heart. Then a lance was handed her, which, after much brandishing, was suddenly thrust through the beast from one side to the other, inflicting a mortal wound.

Dipping the tips of their trumpets in the blood that flowed forth in a stream, the old hags went around the circle of by-standers, marking each one on the forehead; then, by means of fire, the hair was removed from the skin, the carcass was cut up, and all the females present invited to partake.” 153

Probably part of the said chants of the two shamans (known locally in the region as bomoh, dukun, and pawang) or the high priestesses (known as bobohizan or bobolian in Sabah and as babaylan in the Visayan Islands) is the following shamanistic invocation used until now in the Malay Archipelago: 154

Ah, I utter the name of God with one Alif.
Alif stands at the gates of Heaven.
I spread a welcome at the gates of Earth.
Ninety holy prayers I recite,
And then I will open the pent-up Wind.
Wind as small as a sesame seed,
Wind as small as a mustard seed,
Wind called a golden bouquet of flowers,
Wind called a silver bouquet of flowers,
When it emerges, three brothers strong,
A family of four companions.
The first is called Angin Lahar Ahmad,
The second is called Angin Umara,
The third is called Angin Nur Jila,
The fourth is called Angin Nur Zila.
They arose long ago, in the earliest times.
The Winds put forward the father’s secret.
The Winds still receive the prayers of the past.
The Winds emerge from the tip of eternity!

Oh, call upon each and every king
To open the way for the Wind Lahar Ahmad,
Wind that stands with one strong faith.
Original kings, royal by nature,
Warrior gods of the royal line,
Winds of our family, winds of our heritage,
Powerful Winds, the Winds show their power,
Pervasive Winds, Winds penetrating,
Awake to raise and put forward your king,
Hear me, each and every one.
The young warrior, the old warrior.

Then Tullah, who was described in Pigafetta’s account as “the bravest and wisest man in the land" which is the very literal meaning of Awang Si Ayu in Malay, led the natives in bringing their idols and laid them at Magellan’s feet -- such as had not been previously destroyed -- and Tullah who had been restored to health by Magellan's intervention finding an image which had been secreted in his hut by an old woman of his family, became so enraged that he chastised her severely. Tullah then led the way to the shore, where several temples were erected in honor of the idols, which he and his followers tore down and destroyed, shouting at the top of their voices, "Castilia! Castilia!" as the Tlascalans of Mexico had done only a short time before, when they marched into Tezcoco with the timber for Cortes's flotilla. But in other translations and accounts what they were shouting was, “Batara! Batara!” which could mean a lot of things like: (a) for the Hindus, the one that had been brought by the Spaniards was the Supreme God, Bhattara Guru; (b) for the skeptics, it was only a child as implied in Cebuano phrase “bata ra” and there was nothing to be afraid of; (c) for the Buddhists it could be the Maitreya Buddha the last and true Buddha that was perceived as a child and would come on the “end of days”; and (d) for all the afflicted, they were asking help from their emperor, the batara. Or it could be the Tausug Islamic shout, “Katimbakan ka ni Allah!” (“You will be punished by God!”) Or they were cursing the invaders by shouting, “Banyaga! Banyaga!” Banyaga would mean a foreigner for the Tagalog but for the Cebuanos it means a heartless tyrant. Or it is probable that they were shouting, “Ksatriya! Ksatriya!” – calling the attention for war. Whatever it was, it must be all pertaining to fury and war.

It was Magellan's religious enthusiasm that tempted him to court disaster, by mingling in the affairs of the natives. He felt, indeed, that it was his duty to bring all the tribes of the great archipelago under the influence of his church and religion. He had accomplished the conversion and apparent subjugation of Java's people so quickly, and had, to all appearances so firmly established Spanish rule and the Catholic faith, that he anticipated no more trouble in dealing with other islands and natives of the region.

The boy Tugao from Sunda Kelapa, in the western part of Medang, was then sent back to Magellan telling him through the Shahbandar the response of the Awang Si Ayu Raya Si Kuala Labu had said:

“I have no master but myself. I bow before no tyrant king. There is no other king   but myself. My allegiance is only to my nation; my service and loyalty to my people. And never shall the Malay race vanish from the face of the earth.” 155

The boy, who introduced himself as the son of “Zula”, the Crown Prince of Sunda Kelapa known to the Sundanese titles Prabu Surawisesa Jayaperkosa and Ratu Sang Hyang whom the Portuguese called Ratu Samian (a variant of Datu Simaun), said that his father owing to the oppressions of the Awang Si Ayu Raya Si Kuala Labu could do no better and requesting the assistance of a boat-load of soldiers for with only a boat-load, he said, combined with his own gallant warriors, he could overcome the rajah and conquer the island for Magellan. Unknown to Magellan, this Zula and Awang Si Ayu Raya Si Kuala Labu were one and the same. It was a war tactic of inviting an enemy to a trap by using bait. Nobody would suspect a little boy to be a participant of deception or trickery but not treachery. Magellan had been considered an enemy ever since the time that: (a) when he was planning to colonize the archipelago in the name of his king which had already been revealed by Trenggana; (b) when he denied to pay tribute upon entering the harbor of the city of Zabaj belittling the empire’s sovereignty and declaring war in the name of Spain against those who would force him to do so; (c) when he enforced his religion by force through the use of sword and fire, by burning the houses of innocent villagers, destroying Buddhist stupas, Hindu temples, and Islamic mosques; (d) when his men defied the sanctity of cemeteries by excavating them and looted its treasures; and worst, (e) when his men led by Duarte Barboza raped and killed the fifty virgin princesses of the empire.

In listening to the request of this “sub-chief”, Fernan Magellan allowed his reason to be subjected to religious fanaticism; his desire to promote the general welfare of the islanders to be overcome by a stronger desire for conquest. There was situated, it is thought, the city of Bulaya (Budaya) he had destroyed by fire, and “Raia Cilapulapu” may have been the ruler whose rights he had infringed in so doing, for he could not understand, he said, "why he should do homage to the potentate of Sumatra (Menangkabaw in particular and not Cebu), whom he had so long held under his thumb." He submitted the proposition to his officers, and they, without dissent, were decidedly opposed, especially stubborn being Joao Serrao, veteran of many fights in the East, and a man of tried courage. As usual, however, the captain-general had determined upon his course before calling a council, and, though all were opposed, he had resolved to push matters to a conclusion.

Magellan thus believed that he had made himself an ally of the Sultan and had taken him under his protection -- an act and belief that soon to cost him his life. He could not foresee, however, the terrible consequences of this misstep, though his reason should have warned him against mingling in the strife of these people. He could not understand them, for they were entirely new to him, and they had had their feuds and petty wars for generations. Neither could he estimate their strength nor their valor, both which were great, and were to prove more than he could prevail against, with all his ships and soldiers.

In the Cirebon account, it states, unknown to the Sultan the ruma bichara had convened and agreed to assassinate him for allying with Magellan (who was referred as “Portuguese captain-general”), thus betraying the saudara.

The Battle of Medang

Medang is a historic geographical name to identify the plain south of Mount Merapi in central Java, roughly corresponds to modern Yogyakarta, Sleman and Bantul Regency. It looks like an island as it is divided by two rivers -- the Pamali River (Ci Pamali, the present day Brebes River) and the Serayu River (Ci Sarayu). Sunda Kelapa lies off the harbor of Medang, only a few miles distant from Demak, and its invasion was not a matter of difficulty -- provided no opposition was offered. Shortly before midnight of April 26th, Magellan's expedition against Medang set forth: sixty Spaniards, and about a thousand natives, commanded by the Sultan. With this expedition went also the chief historian of Magellan's voyage, Antonio Pigafetta. Pigafetta had vividly described the battle being an eye-witness himself as follows:

"The captain-general decided to go thither with three boat-loads of soldiers. We begged him repeatedly not to go himself, but he, like a good shepherd, refused to abandon his flock. At midnight, sixty men of us set out armed with corselets and helmets, together with the Christianized king, the prince, and some of the chief men, in twenty or thirty balanghais.

"We reached Medang (not Mactan) three hours before dawn. The captain did not wish to fight then, but sent a message to the natives by the converted Moro (the Shahbandar), to the effect that if they would obey the King of Spain, recognize the sovereignty of Sumatra (Menangkabaw), and pay us tribute, he would be their friend; but that if they wished otherwise, they should wait to see what our lances could do!

"They replied that while we had lances, they also had them, made of bamboo, with points hardened in the fire. They requested us not to attack them then, but to wait till after daylight, as they expected reinforcements, with which they could meet us on more nearly equal terms. This was a ruse, intended to decoy us at once to the attack, for they had dug a long, deep ditch, faced with sharp stakes, and our destruction would have been sure.

"The coral reefs, by which Medang was surrounded, prevented the approach of the boats near shore, and when morning came forty-nine of us leaped into the water up to our thighs, and walked through it for more than two crossbow-flights before we could reach dry land. Eleven men remained behind to guard the boats and serve the lombards." 156

Magellan himself led the way, with naked sword in hand, and regardless of the missiles of the foe, which soon filled the air around him. The dawn of that morning, Sunday, April 28, 1521 (Philippine time), was the last which Magellan was to witness on earth; but no premonition of disaster oppressed him then. He and his men struggled through the water to shore, and formed upon the sands. Opposed to them were thousands of islanders (in the Sundanese account, it was 1,452 troops from the Cirebon-Demak alliance), who, forming in three divisions, so as to attack the Spaniards front and flank, charged down upon them furiously, brandishing their spears, and yelling like mad.

Pigafetta continued:

"When our captain saw that, he formed us into two divisions, and thus did we begin the fight. The musketeers and cross-bow-men shot from a distance for about half an hour, but uselessly, as their shots either fell short, or passed merely through the shields with which the natives were armed. Seeing this, our captain cried to them: 'Cease, cease firing!' but his order was not heeded. When, therefore, the natives saw that we were shooting our muskets to no purpose, they redoubled their shouts and their efforts to break into our ranks. They leaped hither and thither, to defeat the aim of the musketeers, at the same time covering themselves with their shields. They shot so many arrows at us, and hurled so many bamboo spears tipped with iron at our captain-general, besides fire-hardened stakes, stones, and mud, that we could scarcely defend ourselves.

"Seeing that, our captain-general sent some men to burn their houses, in order to terrify them; but when they saw them burning, they were only roused to greater fury. Twenty or thirty houses were burned; but two of our men were killed, of the party that made the attempt. So many of them now charged upon us that they pressed us close, and shot our captain through the right leg with a poisoned arrow. On that account he ordered us to retire slowly, but the men, being unaccustomed to defeat, were terrified at such an order, and most of them took to flight immediately—all except six or eight of us, who remained by our captain. Seeing that our vulnerable spots were the legs, as they were exposed, the natives shot only at them, and so many were the spears and stones they hurled at us, that we could offer no resistance.

"The mortars in the boats could not aid us, being too far away; thus we were in a terrible plight. So we continued to retire, for more than a good cross-bow flight from the shore, always fighting up to our knees in the water. The natives continued to pursue us, and picking up the same spears, hurled them at us again and again. Recognizing our captain, so many turned upon him that they succeeded in knocking off his helmet twice; but he ever withstood them, like the good knight he was, and at last we made a stand for more than an hour, refusing to go any farther.” 157

Seeing that, Magellan sent some men to burn the villages in order to terrify the native warriors. Thirty houses had been burned down. Instead of terrifying the native warriors it only heightened their anger. Two of the Spaniards were killed near the houses.

“So many of them charged down upon us that they shot the captain through the right leg with a poisoned arrow; on that account, he ordered us to retreat slowly, but the men took to flight, except six or eight of us who remained with the captain. The natives shot only at our legs because they were naked.” 158

The Sultan had sent four warriors to assist Magellan but they were hit by the mortars coming from the balangay of Tullah. Either they used the lantaka or had stolen mortars from the Spanish ships was not clear.


Finally, an Indian had cast a bamboo spear into Magellan's face. The said Indian warrior was depicted in some of the drawings done by survivors afterwards as wearing a traditional war dress of a Dyak king; hence, it is very probable that the front squad was the head-hunting tribe of Borneo – the Dyak and their leader who was killed with his own lance was Abdullah Sulayman (Prabu Cakrabuana or the Damong Sari or Damang Sari). Yet, Magellan had set upon and killed the said Indian instantly with his lance, which he left in his body. Thus, the symbolism of Castor was personified in the image of the dead Abdullah Sulayman while Pollux was in Tullah. Then, attempting to draw his sword, Magellan was unable to do so, because of a wound in the arm by a bamboo spear.

This act was the sealing of his fate, because, when the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves upon him. Tullah gashed Magellan’s leg with a huge scimitar, which caused him to fall forward upon his face, when they all rushed upon him with their iron-tipped bamboo spears and their scimitars, and thus they ran him through Magellan -- the Spaniards’ “mirror of chivalry, light, comforter, and true guide” -- and killed him.

In the Malaccan account, Tullah used a keris named as Taming Sari. In Brunei account, it was named as Si-Naga. But in Mindanao and in the Arab world since the time of King Solomon of Israel the keris mentioned is not really a kris but the Zulfiqar (Arabic: ذو الفقار‎ Dhū l-Fiqār; also Zulfikar, Dhu’l-fakr, or Thul-fakr), a kampilan. According to the Islamic tradition, the sword called Zulfiqar belonged to Ali, the first Caliph after the death of the Prophet Muhammad. Zulfiqar is one of the oldest symbols in Islam and according to Shiites its existence goes back to Adam, who carried it out of Eden down to the Earth. The tradition says that the sword once belonged to Muhammed too, who gave it to Ali before his death. In Christian tradition it is the sword of Saint Michael the Archangel. In the S’yair Awang Semaun, it is stated that Awang Si Ayu had killed a Spaniard who had attacked the Sultanate of Brunei. Tullah was also called in Cirebon account as Fatahilla (“victorious”), hence it is very probable that upon striking his scimitar at Magellan he shouted the Muslim battle cry – “La fatà illa Ali, la saif illa Zulfiqar” which means "there is no victory without Ali, there is no sword except (his sword) Zulfiqar”.

“Thereupon, beholding him dead, we, wounded, retreated as best we could to the boats, which were already pulling off. Had it not been for our gallant captain, not a single one of us would have been saved, for while he was so desperately fighting, the others had time to retire to the boats. While the savages were most closely pressing him, in sooth, he several times turned round towards us, to see if we were all in safety, as if his protracted resistance was to cover our retreat."159

Thus fell Fernan Magellan, with his face to the foe, sacrificing himself for the safety of his comrades. That he threw away his life for no good cause, having gone to his death through his own stubbornness, does not detract from the heroism of his latest hours, which was nothing less than sublime. He was brave and unselfish to the very last, as we might have expected of the Fernan Magellan who rescued his friend Serrao from the Malays; who remained with his men on that wreck in the Indian Ocean whence all his brother officers had fled.Sunda Kelapa by then was renamed as Djakarta which means “glorious victory”.163

The Sundanese account had set the date of the Battle of Sunda Kelapa at Medang on June 22, 1527 instead of April 28, 1521. This was obviously a confusion with the date of the defeat and killing of Kalender Çelebi, leader of the Turkoman rebels in Anatolia, by the Ottomans who dispersed his army.

When Sultan Muhammad Shah heard of Magellan's death, he is said to have shed tears, and lamented that he could not have saved him by going to his rescue. He had been expressly forbidden to mingle in the fight, as the captain-general wished to show him what Spaniards could do, thus he and his thousand men remained idle spectators of the battle, though by participation they might have turned the scale in favor of their allies. But more probably the Sultan cried over the death of the lost of his alliance with Spain for his ambition to regain Malacca from the Portuguese and to dominate the entire Southeast Asian region as promised by Magellan after he had been baptized and not really because of Magellan.  With all the fighting, only twelve of the allies were killed, and fifteen of the enemy, so it appears that Magellan perished in an avoidable skirmish with the underestimated local warriors whom he had boasted that a Spaniard in shining armor was equivalent to a hundred tattooed warriors which proved him wrong in the end. What is more applicable to say is that a wise man is more than a hundred soldiers in full gear.

In the evening during that day, Sultan Muhammad Shah had sent a courier, on the Spanish behalf, to Tullah to give the corpses of Magellan and the other Spaniards who were killed in the battle in return of as much merchandise as he wished. But Tullah answered:

“We will not give up such a man, as they have hoped they will. We will not give him up for all the riches in the world. We will keep him as a monument of our triumph.” 160

There is an inscription from the Medang kingdom known as the Shivargha inscription which mentions a battle for royal succession against Jatiningrat, the rebel having made a fortress of hundreds of stones for refuge. This fortress is connected to the site of Ratu Boko. It could be very possible that the battle mentioned was actually the battle between Tullah and the Spaniards and the said inscription must had been written only during the time of the Spanish invasion. The date 856 CE which was indicated in the inscription must be the date when the Saiva temple complex, the Loro Jonggrong, must had been built and not really the date when the inscription was written. It could also very probable that the whole tale  in the said inscription was about the "celestial fairy", her brother Trenggana, her father, her husband Muhammad Shah, and her lover Tullah but it was only equated with different names from older generation. It could also be very probable that Tullah must had been equated to Dharanindra who also assumed the royal title Sri Sanggrama Dhananjaya. Hence, Tullah might had also been hailed as the new Wairiwarawiramardana or "the slayer of courageous enemies". If this is true then the one mentioned as Sarwwarimadawimathana in Ligor B inscription discovered in Southern Thailand Malay Peninsula was actually Tullah and not the hero in the 9th century AD. He could be the valiant and warlike character who embarked on military naval expedition overseas and had brought Sailendra dynasty's control on Ligor in Malay Peninsula. It could be suspected that the Sailendra dynasty was really a Muslim Malay dynasty hiding in the clad of Saivism whose real intention could be to protect or posses the "monsoons' orbs" or the "jewels of Tara" which were believed to possess not only symbolical imperial powers but also literal supernatural powers. Tullah must had been equated to the ninth century hero Jatiningrat mentioned and described as "the young prince in possesion of royal majesty, protected the country of Java, righteous and majestous in battles and in feasts, full of fervour and perfect, victorious but free from passion, a Great King of excellent devotion... a killer as fast as the wind..." while Sultan Muhammad Shah must had been equated to Balaputra to whom his life was very similar and parallel to. Or perhaps the term Jatiningrat was only referring to the title of the Madjapahit prince being of Tanjung Pura in origin and that of the Malaccan sultan as Balaputra indicating the title of  the Sri Vijayan emperor indicating his Menangkabaw origin. If this was the case, then the tale stated in the said inscription must had been a narrative of an historical event that happened in the early quarter of the 16th century. Likewise, the folklore about Loro Jonggrong might also be a  fairytale version of the life of the "celestial fairy" who was also known in the Sejarah Melayu as Putri Naya Kasuma who later became the wife of Sangaji Jaya Ningrat who was also known as Radin Prana Langu (Sangu or Sanku Ningrat) and as Kyai Kimas Jiva who was most probably referring to Tullah himself.

Upon the death of Magellan, Duarte Barbosa and Joao Serrao were chosen as the new commanders of the ships. After Barbosa became the commander of the Trinidad he immediately commanded Trenggana to go ashore and help the four Spaniards who stayed in the city of Kampar to carry back the merchandise. But Trenggana who was slightly wounded with a poisoned arrow and had a fever would not go and said that he was no longer a slave since Magellan his master was already dead. Barbosa shouted at him that if he would not go he would be flogged and that he would see to it that if they had returned to Spain he would continue to be a slave of Doña Beatrice, the wife of Magellan. In sullen silence, Trenggana arose and received the message, then leaped into a skiff and rowed ashore. Instead of going to assist the men in removing the goods from the warehouse, however, as he had been directed, after delivering the message to the Sultan he lingered at the palace.

Duarte Barbosa who was aware of Magellan's last will and testament concerning Trenggana had obviously no plan of granting that wish which stated: 

"I declare and ordain that from the day of my death thenceforward for ever, my captured slave Enrique, mulatto, native of the city of Malacca, of the age of twenty-six years more or less, shall be free and manumitted, and quit, exempt, and relieved of every obligation of slavery and subjection, that he may act as he desires and thinks fit; and I desire that of my estate there may be given to the said Enrique the sum of ten thousand maravedis (Spanish gold coins) in money for his support..." 

Trenggana had told the Sultan that the Spaniards intended to take him captive, after first destroying the town; but that, while they were still unsuspicious, he might forestall them by a massacre. He told the Sultan that if he would follow his advice they would be able to gain the galleons and all the merchandise therein. And that they could avenge the death of the fifty virgins – probably ten of that were daughters of Tullah. So they had arranged a plot of how to do it. Yet unknown to the Sultan, Trenggana had another plan with Tullah – escaping away from the Sultan before he would do the same with them afterwards.

The Massacre in Sumatra

On the morning of May 1, the Shahbandar told Barbosa that the jewels – the two pearls-of-Allah -- that the Sultan had promised to send to the King of Spain were ready, and that the Sultan begged them and their companions to come to dine with him that morning, when he would give them the jewels. Twenty-four men excluding Pigafetta went ashore.

The banquet had been prepared. Unknown to the Sultan, Tullah had returned and secretly took away Father Pedro Valderrama to his house which was seen by Juan Carvalho and the constable, Gonzalo Espinosa.  Suspecting, the two had returned hurriedly to the galleons. While the Sultan was focused at the banquet, Trenggana took his sister – the “celestial fairy” – and her two ladies-in-waiting; and the four very beautiful musicians, who had entertained Pigafetta upon their arrival in Demak, of which one of them was Dayang, the favorite stewardess of the Sultan and Trenggana’s captured bride. Then they went to Tullah’s house. From there they went to two separate balangays. The “celestial princess”, her two ladies-in-waiting, Trenggana, and the four Muses went to the larger royal junk commanded by Sulayman’s son while the seven remaining datus (three of them were killed in the Battle of Medang) on the junk commanded by Tullah. They immediately sailed away.

The two Spaniards succeeded in worming their way through the throng and reached the shore, where they took a boat for the Trinidad. They had scarcely arrived when a great commotion ashore attracted their attention, and looking towards the land they saw their comrades surrounded by clamorous natives, who, with spear and kris, were stabbing promiscuously. One by one they fell, fighting desperately to the last, until there was left only Captain Serrao, whom the natives dragged to the shore, in order to barter his life for cannon and other things they had hoped to gain by surprising the fleet.

The caution and watchfulness of Carvalho alone prevented them from plundering the ships, as he hove up anchor at the first sign of disturbance, and, running abreast the town, poured into it several broadsides. The Victoria and the Concepcion followed suit, and then all sailed out of the bay towards the open sea, without an attempt at the rescue of Serrao, who stood on the shore, whither he had been dragged by his captors, vainly imploring assistance. He was wounded and bleeding, he was the only survivor of the party he and Barbosa had led to its doom, yet his shipmate and boon companion, Carvalho, refused to send a boat ashore for his rescue! At first he wept and implored, while his captors, with daggers at his throat, awaited the response from the ship; but as it became apparent that Carvalho was abandoning him to be murdered in cold blood, he raised a bleeding hand to Heaven and invoked curses upon that comrade, his compadre, who could do a thing so base and cowardly. "I pray God," he cried, "that He may demand my soul of thee, Juan Carvalho, at the last great day of judgment!"

The imprecation ended in a cry of despair, as his ferocious captors bore him to the ground, where they stabbed him to death with their daggers. Speechless from terror, and seemingly incapable of action, the cowardly sailors on board the fleet saw their former friends and shipmates massacred. They also witnessed, as they were borne to safety from the harbor, a great crowd of fanatical natives engaged in tearing down the cross that had been raised so short a time before in the consecrated square. The recantation of the Sultan and his subjects was complete, for they promptly returned to Islam, and the only reminder of the religion they had so transiently professed was the carven image of the Señor Santo Niño which Magellan had presented to the queen.

Twenty-six valiant Spaniards and Portuguese were slain in that massacre, comprised in the list of dead being three captains of the fleet's vessels, a pilot, two notaries, a gunner, a cooper, common seamen, servants, and sobresalientes, or supernumeraries. Through the negligence of Magellan, he did not only lost his own life, but indirectly brought about the loss of others, when, deprived of their sagacious head, the officials of the fleet unwisely accepted the invitation to that fatal banquet.

Respecting the death of Serrao, an eye-witness says: "As soon as the men in the ships saw the slaughter, they hoisted the anchors and tried to set sail. At that juncture, the savages brought Joao Serrao, one of those whom they desired to ransom, and asked two guns and two bahars of copper for him. Serrao told them to take him to the ship and he would give them what they asked; but they insisted that those things be taken ashore. And the men on the ship, fearing another act of treachery, set sail and abandoned that man there, and nothing more was ever heard of him."

Despite his treachery to Serrao, the wretch whom fortune had placed in command of the flag-ship, Juan Carvalho, was confirmed as captain-general of the fleet. It is claimed by his enemies that it was owing to his desire to acquire supreme command that he so brutally sailed away and left poor Serrao to his fate. Three vessels then comprised the armada, and this small fleet was still further reduced, after the narrow channel called the Strait of Malacca had been passed (passing Sumatra, Singapore, and the Malay Peninsula), by the burning of the Concepcion at Kampong Bohol in Selangor, Malaysia (not Bohol in the Visayan Islands). This vessel was found to be leaking badly, and as all the ships were then short-handed, owing to the loss of so many men, her contents and crew were divided between the Trinidad and Victoria. These two were all that remained, the first week in May, 1521, of the gallant fleet which had set sail from Seville nineteen months before, for the Santiago’s bones were bleaching on the coast of Patagonia, the San Antonio had deserted her companions in the Strait of Magellan, and the Concepcion was burned to the water's edge off the Klang River.


 Journey to the Spicy Paradise

On July 9, sailing near to the harbor of Brunei, the Spanish galleons was met by three great balangays decorated in gold, and flying a blue-and-white banner surmounted with peacock feathers. Beneath the banners sat groups of musicians, beating gongs and drums; and in this manner, preceded by stately balangays, and to the sound of martial music, the ships entered the beautiful harbor of Brunei, in Borneo. As soon as the ships had anchored, a fleet of balangays came out to take the passengers ashore, where, to their astonishment, they found a troop of richly caparisoned elephants awaiting them. After they had timorously mounted the beasts, a procession was formed which set out for the sultan's palace, preceded by ten men carrying presents in porcelain jars covered with silk. The streets of Brunei were filled with half-naked warriors bearing swords, shields, spears, and cutlasses, while the great hall of the palace contained hundreds of soldiers clad in cloth-of-gold, with daggers on their thighs adorned with pearls and precious stones.

The sultan was invisible to the strangers, and they were compelled to converse with him through a "speaking-tube" – obviously to avoid detection that he was one and the same with the Sultan who had slaughtered their comrades in Kampar. Yet, Pigafetta had chanced to see him slightly as the curtains that barred him from view were slightly pushed away to accept the presents given by the Spaniards – on a side-view, the tattooed jovial sultan identical in description with the rajah of Kampar was slightly seen. The Sultan sent the Spaniards to their rooms delighted with his graciousness. There, for the first time in many months, they slept on cotton mattresses, "whose lining was of taffeta, and the sheets of kembaya." This unwonted luxury caused them to sleep till late in the morning, when they were regaled at breakfast with capons, veal, peacocks, and fish, washed down with wine of rice, called arrack, which they drank from dainty cups the size of an egg. They returned to the sea-shore as they had come, on elephant-back, and each man with his hands full of gifts from the sultan.

The city of Brunei was built after the fashion of the ancient lake-dwellers' towns, mainly on piles, above the placid waters of a great bay, with waterways for boats, instead of streets; but the sultan's palace was on dry land. In the river beyond the bay were anchored fleets of war-balangays that had just arrived from Medang, manned by fierce-looking Malays, which had been constantly increasing in number since the arrival of the ships. Carvalho and Espinosa had been watching them suspiciously several days, for many of them had taken position between the ships and the sea.

One morning, in the last week of July, the three balangays commanded by Tullah and by Karim had arrived from their long journey of hide-and-seek from the Sultan. Tullah commanded the captains of the war-balangays to surround the Spanish fleet. Carvalho being watchful had observed that two hundred or more of the war-balangays suddenly hove up their anchors and started to surround them. No sooner had the war-balangays had done so, the Spanish commanders met them with a discharge of their batteries, then set sail and stood out of the harbor. Many balangays were shattered or overturned, and in open water outside the harbor the royal junk commanded by Karim was captured. Carvalho thought that he was then returning from a plundering expedition and laden with spoils. In exchange for a large portion of his treasure, it is said, Captain Carvalho gave him his liberty, but he retained as captives the three very beautiful girls -- the “celestial fairy” and her two ladies-in-waiting whom Tullah had abducted from the Sultan -- and was taking as a present to the Queen of Spain. Karim’s junk had sailed away to Sabah to keep safe Trenggana who had returned later to Demak and assumed the throne he had left for ten years while Tullah was chasing the Spanish fleets.

When the news of the arrival of Tullah who had “abducted the celestial fairy with the twin pearls of the monsoon winds” had reached Sultan Muhammad Shah, he immediately set off on his royal junk to search for him and get back the damhara amihan and the pearls.

The crafty Carvalho was speedily punished for his dereliction from duty, as, by allowing the prince to go free in exchange for gold, he was prevented from redeeming two of his men who, in the haste of departure, had been left ashore at Brunei. One of these was his own son by an Indian woman of Brazil; yet he left him without any apparent compunction, and probably never heard of him more. It was a long descent from Magellan to Carvalho as commander, and even his countrymen on board the ship could not endure him longer; so they deposed him, sometime during the voyage from Borneo to the Moluccas. They elected Espinosa, the alguacil, commander-in-chief, and Juan Sebastian del Cano captain of the Victoria.

Not long after, the Spanish fleet was following the balangay of Sultan Muhammad Shah whom they thought was going to the Moluccas which route they did not know and whose lands they did not yet has a view. They had noticed that the said balangay pursued and overhauled junk after junk, but all to no purpose, and in their devious wanderings found themselves back again on the coast of Mindanao, which they reached by way of the Sulu Archipelago. Sultan Muhammad who had introduced himself as Sultan Amir-ul-Umara of Sulu had told del Cano that they were searching for his two pearls “that were as big as hen's eggs, and so round that they would not stand still on a table," which according to him had been taken by pirates from Borneo who were sailing somewhere on that sea. When the Sultan heard that the Spaniards were seeking for the Moluccas, he instructed them the direction – southeast of Sulu, ten degrees they must sail, first through the Celebes Sea, then into that of the Moluccas, where they would find the islands Ternate and Tidor, with others, that produced nutmegs, cloves and cinnamon.

Between Sulu and Mindanao, the balangay of Tullah was attacked and captured by Del Cano. The seven datus who had fought against the Spanish soldiers were all slain while Tullah was put in irons. When asked about his identity he told them that as a young boy he was taken by a garuda to a tree at the top of a mountain and he was living inside the hatched egg until he was found by a hunter and was adopted as a son. Del Cano asked him about the legendary pearls of the monsoon winds and he confirmed its existence. Tullah was in despair but when he learned that the Spaniards were in search of the Spiceries, he offered to pilot them there, provided they gave him his liberty and his balangay to command again. Most gladly they promised, for their provisions were failing once more, and after sailing hither and thither so many months, on a quest which it seemed might be endless, they desired rest and refreshment.

Gladly, Tullah, had exclaimed, "Lo, I can take ye there, for I have friends in those islands whom I have visited often. Among them one of your countrymen, Francisco Serrao, who was my friend, but now is no more, for the King of Tidor caused him to be poisoned as a revenge for kidnapping his daughter and giving her as a gift to his liege lord, the king of Ternate, Prabu Udara. Djamaluddin, the first Muslim king of Tidor lured Francisco Serrao to his island on a pretense of trading in spices, poisoned him, out of revenge."

Then indeed they rejoiced -- though their joy was tinctured with sadness, to learn of the passing away of that gallant Portuguese, Serrao. Upon close questioning of the pirate captain, it was found that he had been murdered the very week that Magellan, his most intimate friend, and Joao Serrao, his brother, met death by violence at Sunda Kelapa and Kampar respectively. Thus had perished the reckless soldier, Francisco Serrao, who, during at least seven or eight years of his residence in the Moluccas, had maintained an occasional correspondence with his dearest friend Fernan Magellan. To him, more than to any other mortal, Magellan was indebted for the idea of reaching the Spice Islands by sailing westward from Africa, and for information concerning their resources. Francisco Serrao, in fact, not only lighted the beacon-flame that guided Magellan and beckoned him on, but fed that flame for years, in the hope of bringing his friend to him at last. He probably knew of the expedition commanded by Magellan, as the King of Portugal had dispatched an armada to the Spice Islands for the purpose of intercepting and destroying it. Only a few months more of life to each, and these old comrades would have met; but the hand of grim Death stretched forth and dragged them both into the grave.

With Tullah at the helm of the flag-ship, the two ships in company sailed across the Celebes Sea -- or, rather, they skirted it, dodging in and out among volcanic islands --until finally, in the morning of November 6, 1521, four lofty islands rose on the horizon. These, Tullah told them, were the Moluccas, of which they had been in search no less than twenty-six months, that being the time that had elapsed since they sailed out of Seville. Two pointed peaks, they said, the conical tips of insular volcanoes covered with a vegetation ravishingly beautiful to behold, were the cloud-wreathed crowns of Ternate and Tidor. As they approached them, fragrant gales were wafted to the fleet, and the weary sailors needed not to be told that here before them, at last, were the long-sought, long-looked-for Islands of Spices!

"Three hours before sunset of Friday, November 8th," says Pigafetta, "we entered the harbor of an island called Tidor, and anchoring near the shore, in twenty fathoms of water, fired off all our artillery as a salute to its king. Next day the said king came to the ships in a proa, and circled about them once. He was seated under a silk awning; in front of him was one of his sons, with the royal sceptre, and a person on each side with a gilded casket and a gold jar, containing betel-nuts and water. The king said to us we were welcome, and that he had dreamt some time before that we were coming; for he was an astrologer, and his name was Almanzor."

There was only one Almanzor during the period – Sultan Muhammad Shah who was also called in Malacca as Mansur Shah. If this hypothesis is correct then Djamaluddin or Raden Patah is more probably one of those who were slain or burnt at the Battle of Medang and Francisco Serrao must be one of those who were poisoned at the banquet in Java. Francisco Serrao might had gone to Kampar to visit his brother Joao Serrao and his best friend Fernan Magellan and might had warned the latter of the coming Portuguese armada to intercept his voyage to the Moluccas and eventually capture him. It must be noted that it was Francisco Serrão's letters to Ferdinand Magellan, which were carried to Portugal via Portuguese Malacca and which described the 'Spice Islands', that helped Magellan persuade the King of Spain to finance his circumnavigation. Francisco Serrão was the pilot of a round caravel in the 4th Portuguese India Armada led by Vasco da Gama in 1502 and of the round caravel Botafogo in  the 7th Portuguese India Armada led by Francisco de Almeida in 1505 and later in the capture of Malacca and other actions in the East of which his brother João Serrão and his friend Fernan Magellan were among the crews.

The Spaniards received the King of Tidor as Magellan had received the Prince of Kampar. The red-velvet chair of state was brought out and sat on deck, he was clothed in a robe of yellow silk, and presented with such articles as beads, knives, mirrors, drinking-cups, webs of linen, bales of silk, the robe in which he was draped, and the chair of state he sat in.

So rejoiced were the commanders and crew at having arrived in these islands much desired, that they would have given the king whatever he wanted; but he himself begged them to desist, as he had nothing worthy, he said, to present them in exchange, for the acceptance of their king, unless, indeed, he sent himself! But he had cloves and cinnamon, and for these the ships had been laden with goods to barter many, many months before. The spices, Almanzor informed his guests, were on the way to the coast, being products of the interior country, and especially of the mountain districts, where the fragrant groves covered hills and vales alike.

So anxious were the Spaniards to please this king of the Spiceries that they presented him with the three beautiful girls for his harem. Unknown to the Spaniards one of those girls was the “celestial fairy” and wife of that sultan. The Spaniards knowing that the sultan was a Muslim, had all the pigs on board the two ships killed, in order not to offend his religious sensibilities. For the Spaniards knew quite well that they were trespassing upon a Portuguese dependency, and that this same sovereign was bound by treaty to trade exclusively with their rivals.

Only by suffrance, they realized, could they procure the precious spices they had come so far to find, and the sultan was treated as though he were, "in very truth, a king." This policy had its effect, as was soon shown by the stream of runners from the country, each one bearing on his back a bale of cloves. The trading then "waxed fast and furious," for not only the factors of the ships began purchasing, but all the common sailors as well, each man being entitled to a quintalada, or percentage of the lading-space aboard ship, ranging from eighty quintals allowed the captain-general, to a quintal and a half for a sailor.

Trading began on the night of November 24, at which time the van-guard of the spice-army arrived. The sultan launched his balangay, with its gorgeous banners and silken awnings, and, with drums beating furiously, circled around the ships, which saluted him repeatedly by discharges of cannon, "for the joy that was felt over the arrival of the cloves." The first loads were scarcely aboard the ships, when the sultan invited officers and crews to join him at a banquet in his palace among the palm-trees on shore; but, with the horrors of Kampar's massacre in mind, the invitation was declined.

The king was not offended thereby, but continued friendly, for there was great rivalry between him and several other sovereigns for the trade and good-will of the Spaniards. In this merry war joined the kings of Ternate, of Batchian, and Gilolo, who vied with each other in their efforts to win the regard of the strangers. The first sent vast quantities of cloves, the second a slave for the Emperor of Spain, and the third skins of the bird-of-paradise, which had never been seen by Spaniards before. These skins were without feet, and this fact, together with their wonderfully beautiful plumage, led the Spaniards to believe what the natives told them: that the birds descended from paradise, where they lived with the souls of the saints; that they never touched the earth, but pursued a strictly aerial existence, ever floating about in the air, not even alighting in trees.

Judging from the regal state of these island sovereigns, they were kings, indeed, and more than semi-savage chiefs. According to the reports gathered by Pigafetta who was in the Trinidad, Almanzor had a palace in town and another in the country, with a hundred wives in each; when he ate he sat alone, or with the wife he loved best, in a high gallery, with the other ninety-nine looking on in admiration; when he had finished, they were permitted to partake, or remove from the table what they liked best and eat it alone in their chambers; he had eight sons and eighteen daughters; but the Moro kings of Gilolo surpassed him, for one rejoiced in the possession of six hundred children, and the other five hundred and twenty-five.

While the Spaniards were so merrily lading their ships with the spices they had come so far to procure, and enjoying to the utmost the material delights of these paradisiacal isles, they were reminded occasionally, by rumors from Ternate that they were yet in a position of peril. These islands were considered appanages of Portugal, because a Portuguese navigator had, first of all Europeans, visited and traded with them. One day there came over from Ternate a Portuguese named Lorosa, who informed them that not long before a fleet of armed traders under Don Tristan de Meneses had been there, looking for Magellan as well as for trade. The King of Portugal had also sent an armada to the Cape of Good Hope, in order to intercept that "renegade," as well as one to the coast of Patagonia; but all had failed to find and capture him. It was almost time, however, he said, for the fleet to return, and in case of its coming the Spaniards would certainly be in peril, for although Portugal and Spain were at peace as to the Iberian Peninsula, they were likely to war over their colonial possessions; and the coming armada was a strong one, far surpassing in tonnage, guns, and men that of the Spaniards.

This information caused the commanders such anxiety that they hurried forward the lading by night and by day. By mid-December both ships had so much cargo that no more could be taken without risk of over-lading, and the king was told that soon they must take their departure. He was both astonished and grieved, says Pigafetta, and immediately went to the flag-ship to express his displeasure.

"He said that we should not depart then, for that was not the season for sailing among those islands. However, if it was our determination to depart then, we should take back all our merchandise, else all the kings roundabout would say that the King of Tidor had received so many presents from so great a king, and had given nothing in return; and that, also, they would think we had departed only for fear of some treason, and would always call him a traitor. Then he had his Koran brought, and, first kissing it and placing it four or five times above his head, at the same time muttering certain words to himself, he declared in the presence of all that he swore, by Allah and the Koran, that he would always be faithful to the King of Spain. He spoke all those words nearly in tears, and in sympathy for him we promised to wait yet a few days longer; but not many, as the time had come to go."

While the sailors were awaiting orders to sail, they amused themselves by making excursions into the country, where they found fruits and flowers in profusion. On one of these trips they met a strange procession consisting almost entirely of women, each woman nude to the waist, but with a silken skirt from the waist to the knees. On their heads they bore large wooden trays filled with food, as also jars of wine. Some of the men followed them and ascertained that they were taking the material for a banquet to the King of Batchian, then a guest of the King of Tidor, who received them sitting on a carpet, beneath a red-and-yellow canopy. Perceiving the Spaniards on their return, some of the women captured several, and refused to allow them their freedom until they had made presents to the company. When the king heard of this adventure, he warned the Spaniards against going abroad at night, as there were certain men in his island who, though headless, could see in the dark, and who rubbed a poisonous ointment on the faces of all strangers they met, from which they fell sick and died.

The inhabitants of the islands in general were so peace-loving and gentle, and the islands themselves so entrancingly sweet and attractive, with their various vegetation and delicious atmosphere, that the strangers felt more disposed to remain than to depart. But the time arrived when, as the winter monsoon had set in, they must take their leave of the hospitable king and his beautiful island. They had found the famed Spice Islands even more attractive than had been represented to Magellan; and many there were on board the ships who sighed at thought of him in his grave at Medang, while they were enjoying what he had given his life for them to find.

The Rise of the Winds

After the Trinidad had been stranded in Tidor for a leaking that had been discovered for unknown cause but most probably done by Tullah, the Victoria had set sail leaving behind the Trinidad for its future destruction. The Sultan had loaned Captain Espinosa two hundred carpenters, who worked by shifts for months.

In the Malaccan and Javanese accounts, after the Chinese fleet had defeated the Portuguese led by Simão de Andrade at the Battle of Tamao, Sultan Muhammad Shah was inspired to attack the Portuguese fleets in Malacca for the second time with the assistance of forces coming from Demak and from Javanese-Chinese. As the sea-battle begun between the Sultan’s forces against the Portuguese fleets, the “celestial fairy” was intercepted by the Sultan at sea near Johor. According to numerous legends concerning the “celestial fairy”, while she was embroidering at the deck of the ship she was embraced from behind by the Sultan which startled her and accidentally hit his finger with the needle (Johor account). The Sultan who was angered asked her if she’s still a virgin after so many men had already captured her he would not believe that she had remained faithful (Kelantan account). Furious, she retaliated by stabbing him at the chest with a dagger or in other version a hairpin. There were hairpins as sharp as an ice-pick and bigger than a nail used by princesses during that period. The “celestial fairy” then escaped to an ancient Malay city of Ulu Kelantan, not very far from Malacca, and vowed never to marry again. In Ulu Kelantan the “celestial fairy” being a widow was also called in their legends as Che’ Siti (“the widow who controls the inner winds”). The Sultan’s fleet was defeated. In traditions the fleet was hit by a storm which indirectly caused by its defeat. Those junks and merchant ships that did not capsize were captured by the Portuguese armada which was composed of nine vessels. In one of the ships, the Portuguese found the dead body of the Nakhoda Bolkeiah. If Magellan and Serrao had lived at that moment they must have gazed upon the cadaver with grim satisfaction, and have felt that the scheme of revenge for the slaughter of their comrades was to be fulfilled. The Sultan was then remembered by his people as the Pangeran Sabrang Lor which means “the Prince who crossed (the Java Sea) to North (Malay Peninsula)”. The raids helped convince the Portuguese that the exiled sultan's forces must be silenced.

According to Javanese tradition, among the ships overturned by the said storm was Tullah’s. He was stranded on the coast of Jepara and was saved by a Chinese junk captained by a Chinese minister named Tjie Hwio Gwan. When asked by the minister who he was, accordingly, he told the minister that he was a merchant prince from Sumatra and his name was Toyib, the son of Emperor Shah Mughayat king Aceh. The minister had brought Tullah to his residence in a village known as Kalinyamat and adopted him there as his own son and named him Tjie Bin Thang (either means King of Banten or King of Butuan). Later he was also known in another Chinese name as Chek Kopo.

If taken into consideration the probability that the ship used by the Sultan to regain Malacca was the Trinidad, his death must fall on April 10, 1522. In the Spanish account, it was reported that the Trinidad left Tidor on April 6, 1522 on its voyage to Panama but met directly in the teeth of the head-winds and howling gales which lasted for five days. The real destination might be Malacca in corroboration with Southeast Asian traditions but the real story might be compelled for political reasons. The crippled Trinidad was captured by a Portuguese fleet under Antonio de Brito. Its timbers were used in the construction of a Portuguese fort in Ternate. Its captain and crew were imprisoned, and treated with such barbarity that no less than fifty of them perished, only four surviving to reach their native land. Espinosa was one of the four who, wasted and wan, arrived in Spain early in 1525.

In Cirebon, Brunei, and Sulu traditions, after the death of Sultan Muhammad Shah in April 1522, the people of Brunei and Sulu had requested Tullah to become their new sultan. He became the second sultan of Brunei under the Muslim title Sultan Sharif Ali (سلطان شريف علي), as defender of Islam and possessor of the powerful Zulfiqar or the Taming Sari. He was supposedly the third sultan of Sulu who was supposed to have the title Ala’ ud-Din or Nur-ul-Allah ud-Din but it was the “celestial fairy” who had assumed the throne and the said title by deceit previously for the reasons already mentioned earlier hence instead of third he became the fifth sultan of Sulu with the title Muizzul-Mutawadi-in. He was known in Mindanao as Maharaja Upo. He was both a son and a grandson of Abu Bakr since the latter married his niece who happened to be the mother of Tullah. However, there are Javanese legends which suggest that he was “a son of his half-sister” for Sharifah accordingly was a twin-sister of Fatah who was delivered later by her mother who died in childbirth. In that version, Abu Bakr (also known as Jumadil Kubra, a feminine form for Abu Bakr) drowned himself in the river upon knowing the incestuous relationship he had committed with his daughter.

During this year too, Dom Jorge de Albuquerque had sent a ship, the São Sebastião under Captain Henrique Leme, to Sunda Kalapa with valuable gifts for the king of Sunda (Tullah). Two written sources detail the concluding of the treaty (the so-called Luso-Sundanese Treaty): the original Portuguese document of 1522, with the text of the treaty and the signatures of the witnesses; and João de Barros’s report in his book Décadas da Ásia, printed after 1777 or 1778.

According to these sources, the Portuguese were welcomed warmly by the former crown prince, now Raya Prabu Surawisesa Jayapercosa (or King Surawisesa of Pajundan, also called Ratu Sang Hyang, Portuguese Ratu Samian); Barros called him King Samião -- no other than Tullah himself. The Portuguese were allowed to build a fortress at the mouth of the Ciliwung River where they could load black pepper to their ships. Tullah also pledged to give one thousand sacks (more than 20 tons) each year to the Portuguese. The treaty was executed in two copies, one for the king of Sunda, one for the king of Portugal; each was signed on August 21, 1522. The Sundanese king's deputies were the chief mandarin Padam Tumangu (Honourable Tumenggung) -- Tullah himself being the Pangiran Temenggong, the mandarins Sang Adipati and Bendahara, and the Shahbandar of the land, named Fabian.

"On the said day", these mandarins and other honorable men, together with Henrique Leme and his entourage, went to the mouth of the river where the fortress would be constructed, on the "land called Sunda Kalapa". There they erected a memorial stone, called a padrão, in what is now the Tugu sub-district of North Jakarta. It was a Portuguese custom to set up a padrão (memorial stone) when they discovered a new land. The padrão, now called the Luso-Sundanese padrão, is kept in the National Museum.

Because of troubles in Goa, Portuguese India, the Portuguese failed to keep their promise to come back the following year to construct the fortress. They did not return to the Java Sea until November, 1526, when they arrived in six ships from Bintan under the command of Francisco de Sá.

At that time, thirty Portuguese sailors, shipwrecked by storms, swam to the beach at Sunda Kelapa only to be killed by Tullah’s men. The Portuguese recognized the political leadership had changed when they were not allowed to set foot on the land. As they were too weak for a battle, they set sail back to Malacca. The next year, a second attempt failed because of striking sailors angry at not having been paid.

The padrão was rediscovered at the junction between Jalan Cengkeh and Jalan Kali Besar Timur in 1918 when the Dutch East Indies government made a reclamation in this area.

The Luso-Sundanese padrão is a 165 cm high stone pillar. The upper part of the padrão shows an armillary sphere, a symbol of discovery used by King Manuel of Portugal. On top of the sphere is a trefoil. A cross of the Order of Christ has been carved above the first line of the inscription. The inscription itself, OSPOR .ESFERЯa/Mo is an abbreviation of O Senhor de Portugal. Esfera/Espera do Mundo, meaning The Lord of Portugal. Sphere/Hope of the World. Most probably the said padrão was the monument really erected at the site where Fernan Magellan was buried and the phrase "O Lord of Portugal, Hope of the World" was really referring to Magellan who was described by Pigafetta as "... our mirror, our light, our comfort, and our true guide..."

Tullah’s reign in Sulu lasted until 1548. During his reign as sultan he became very pious by which he was called as Sultan Berkat (“Blessed Sultan”) in Brunei; Si Maayo (“He who is Good”) in Cebu; Simaun or Si Ayo in Brunei; Ratu Adil or Sultan Adil in Java and Sulu respectively which both means “good ruler”; Mir Shah Raju among the Arabs; and Fatahillah and Sharif Hidayatullah among the Cirebonese. He was the first sultan to build a mosque, and fortified the defense of Brunei by ordering his people to build a stone fortress. Tullah governed Brunei according to Islamic principles and his reign was popular and highly respected. He ruled the Sultanate of Brunei for six years. Following his coronation as sultan, as a Muslim tradition, he traveled to Mecca for a hajj and stayed in Egypt for three years with his ancestral tribe – the Bani Israil (Cirebon account). Within those years, he had ordered a very special crown to be made for the woman he wanted to marry upon his return. It was designed after the legendary phoenix of Egypt – a golden crown decorated with a number of gems (Sulu account).

In 1524, upon his return, Tullah had already become a sheiykh named Nurullah and a sharif named Hidayatullah. He entered the service of Sultan Trenggana, the ruling Madjapahit Emperor whose seat was in Demak, as the general commander of all his fleets. In that year, the Portuguese Dom Jorge de Albuquerque had reported that the final triumph of Islam in the region was due to Tullah whom Albuquerque called as Sultan Ali Balfakih of Brunei. In the same year, Tullah married the sister of Trenggana, the “celestial fairy”, whom he had found to be alive and living in Ulu Kelantan. According to Mindanao account, the coronation and wedding ceremony was done in a royal junk at the middle of Lake Lanao. The palace of Tullah was used to stand by the lake. The area during his time was used to be called as Kalanawan which was mentioned by Pigafetta as Calaghan. To recall the first kingdoms of Tullah was the area in Mindanao from Lanao to Butuan and the islands of Cebu, where prior to the coming of Magellan he was called as Sri Lumay – the Sumatran bupati who was fond of making love-potion since he was taught by Dayang Ratna. After the ceremony, the first and original rendition of the dance called Singkil -- which was a combination of Arab steps and Indo-Malay ethnic music & creativity of the Ummah communities of the Maranao and Maguindanao – was performed by Tullah & Kesuma who were also known as Bantugan and Putri Gandingan respectively in the epic Darangen (a Maranao version of the Ramayana which actually recounts the heroism of a real historical figure who was forgotten to be once ruling the Philippine Archipelago).161

In 1526 he was met by the Portuguese, Vasco Lourenço, who visited Brunei. He was already known at that time as Sultan Berkat (“Pious or Blessed Sultan”) as opposed to Muhammad or Ahmad who was known as Sultan Makatunaw (“Tyrant Sultan”). It was reported that Vasco Lourenço showed him the piece of goods that he had brought with him, and opened a tapestry of Arras on which was portrayed the marriage of the King of England with the aunt of the Emperor (Henry VIII & Katharine of Aragon). The King was life size with royal robes, scepter and crown, and the other figures were standing round him. When Tullah saw this strange thing he asked what it was, and they explained to him. But he suspected that they were deceiving him and that the Portuguese were sorcerers, and that those were magic figures that they wanted to introduce into his abode, so that they might slay him at night and seize his kingdom. He was, according to the report, was very frightened and ordered that those things at once be taken away, and that the Portuguese should leave the port, for he would have in his kingdom no other king but himself, and that if the Portuguese would remain there, he would punish them. The Portuguese were astonished. Afonso Pires and some Moors sought to remove this suspicion from his mind, but they were unsuccessful and Afonso Pires returned to Malacca, Vasco Lourenço going with him.162 Suspecting that the Portuguese had already known that he was the valiant hero who had killed Magellan and fearful that they would come back and attack him unprepared, Tullah went to Banten.During that time the original settlement of Banten was situated not on the coast, but about ten kilometers inland on the Cibanten River, in the area which is today occupied by the southern suburbs of the town of Serang. It was known as Banten Girang, meaning “Banten-up-the-river" owing to its location. Tullah at first lived in Banten Girang, then part of the Hindu kingdom of Sunda, as ordinary ulama, whose purpose was to spread the word of Islam in that still Hindu town, and used the name Hasanudin.

In 1527, Tullah abdicated the throne of Brunei in favor of his son Tugao who was crowned as “Sulayman” named after Abdullah Sulayman (Prabu Cakrabuana) the hero who was killed by Magellan with his own lance at the Battle of Medang and who later became a maulana under the name Yusuf. Nevertheless, Tullah had not given up the Sultanate of Sulu for another co-regent. 

In that year, Tullah concentrated on reviving the fortunes of the ancient kingdom of Sunda. One of his earliest decisions was to travel to southern Sumatra, which had traditionally belonged to the kingdom of Sunda, and from which the bulk of the pepper sold in the Sundanese region came. He was keen to assure himself of the loyalty of these wealthy areas as soon as possible and to guarantee supplies of pepper for his ports, since it was on this spice that all international trade was based and, hence, in which the wealth of his kingdom lay.

Having established control over the ports and the pepper trade, Tullah decided to build a new capital, to symbolize the new era which was beginning. He chose to construct it on the coast at the mouth of the Cibanten River. That a settlement already existed at this place is evidence by its harbor activities, but at this time the seat of political power was in Banten Girang. The royal city was founded on the delta, formed by the two arms of the river. Two main streets running north-south and east-west divided the city into quarters. The royal palace surrounded by residences of the principal minister of state, was built on the south side of the royal square and the great mosque on the west side. Foreigners, for the most part merchants, had to live outside the royal city -- that is, on either side of the delta.

In 1529, the Sultanate of Atjeh (Acheh) on the northern tip of Sumatra became powerful enough to consider controlling the Straits of Malacca. Luzon ships formed part of the Atjehnese fleet that attacked key settlements along the straits. At the same time, Luzon warriors formed part of the opposing Batak-Menangkabau army that besieged Atjeh.164

In 1546, Dalem Ketut, the first king of Gelgel (in Bali) who posed as an opponent of Islam and an enemy of Pasuruan and Mataram (in central Java), had proposed to marry the daughter of Sri Juru, the king of Blambangan (in Madura) but the princess refused. A Balinese army was therefore sent to Blambangan where it trapped and killed Sri Juru. The children of the slain king fled to Pasuruan on Java's north coast and Blambangan was brought under Balinese suzerainty. Furthermore, Lombok and West Sumbawa were brought under the authority of Dalem Baturenggong, the 10-year old son of Dalem Ketut. 


According to the Portuguese writer Ferñao Mendes Pinto (c. 1509-1583) in his work Peregrinacam, Bali was a pagan island dependent on the Javanese Muslim Demak kingdom but rebelled in 1546.

As the new dynasty was so firmly established, Tullah without hesitation had left the kingdom to take part in a military expedition against the Balinese in Pasuruan (which controlled Blambangan) in eastern Java, at the request of Sultan Trenggana.165 An alliance of 7,000 warriors from Cirebon, Banten, and Sunda Kelapa (Jayakarta) was led by Tullah. Demak troops had surrounded Panarukan for three months but had not able to capture the city. Sultan Trenggana consulted the governors (who were also the powerful merchants at that time) to launch further attacks. Dalem Baturenggong who was interested in the proceedings did not hear the order. He was eager to stop the Islamic expansion in the area and control it. Angered, Trenggana beat him who in turn spontaneously stabbed Trenggana's chest with a knife. Trenggana lost his life and was taken immediately back to Demak. It is likely that Tullah took advantage of his suzerain’s death and the troubles which ensued to free his kingdom from any further obligations to this royal house. Upon the death of Trenggana, Tullah was crowned as the last Madjapahit emperor and by possessing one of the “pearls-of-Allah” he acquired the titles: Nur Jila and Nur Zila – the winds of freedom and peace. The “celestial fairy” became his co-regent and she directly ruled over Japara with its seat at Kalinyamat and chose the Chinese minister Tjie Hwio Gwan as her grand vizier.166
On the mainland, Luzon warriors aided the Burmese king in his invasion of Siam in 1547 AD. At the same time, Luzon warriors fought alongside the king of Thailand and faced the same elephant army of the Burmese king in the defense of the Siamese capital at Ayuthaya.167

In 1548, Tullah abdicated the throne of the Sulu sultanate in favor of his son Sulayman, who was crowned in Sulu as Sultan Nasirud-Din I (1548-1568). According to tradition, he also managed the development of the Sunda kingdom as co-regent of his father following the custom long practiced within the empire.168

In 1550, upon the request of the Sultan of Johor, the “celestial fairy” had sent 4,000 soldiers in 40 ships to aid the said sultan in freeing Malacca from the European powers. Accordingly, the fleets from Japara were later joined forces with the Malay alliance and manage to rally around 200 warships. The combined forces attacked from the north and captured most of Malacca. But the Portuguese managed to retaliate and draw back the Malay alliance to the sea while the troops from Japara remained on shore but withdrew when their leader was slain. As the battle continued in land and at sea, two thousand soldiers of Japara were killed. It was worsened by a storm which held the other two ships of Japara stranded at the shore of Malacca which had given the Portuguese the chance to slay the stranded soldiers. The number of soldiers of Japara who managed to escape back to Java was less than a half of those who were sent.169

In the same year, the Ming Empire finally put an end to overseas trade altogether. Yet, ironically, the Ming Empire's ban on overseas trade became a blessing to Luzon. The port cities in Fujian and Canton that had been profiting from overseas trade since the Sung Dynasty cannot simply end its trade relations with Southeast Asia just because the central government in Beijing does not see profit from it. Chinese ships from Fujian and Canton continue to smuggle goods out of China. They chose the port cities of Tondo and Manila in Luzon as a drop off point. Ships from other parts of Asia, mostly Brunei and Malacca would then sail to Luzon to pick up their percentage of the Chinese goods.170

Also during this period, Tullah decided to launch the final blow to what remained of the kingdom of Sunda. Sulayman led the attack on Dayeuh Pakuan, its capital city located in modern Bogor. After losing its most important port Sunda Kelapa, the kingdom, already deprived of its trading revenues, was of symbolic importance only. The kingdom put up little resistance and henceforth Banten ruled over the entire territory of the former kingdom of Sunda, which corresponds to most of current Indonesian province of West Java. The sacred stone (watu gigilang) that was serving as the sovereign’s throne of Sunda kingdom was taken away and put at the street intersection in the royal square of Banten, thus marking the end of the Sundanese dynasty. Henceforth this stone was to serve as the Banten sovereign’s throne.171

The End of the Madjapahit Empire

In 1564, Tullah had asked the regent of Demak, Aryan Pangiri, to send assistance to the Sultanate of Aceh in attacking the Portuguese in Malacca. But the suspicious regent had the envoys killed.172 In the same year, the Portuguese captain-general, Gonzalo Pereira attacked Cebu and Bohol and captured many natives to be sold for slavery. 173

Miguel López de Legazpi's fleet consisting of five galleons and 500 men arrived in the Philippines and landed in the shores of Cebu, believing it to be the place where Magellan had gone, on February 14, 1565. The Shahbandar, on his balangay with seven datus, who was under the instruction of Tullah,went to Legazpi and advised him that they (the Spaniards) would be more successful if they befriended the neighboring chiefs before attempting to land in Cebu or they would meet the same fate with Fernan Magellan. After a brief struggle with hostile natives, they left the island in search of food, water, supplies and other resources.

While the Spaniards had sailed away, Tullah who was called Simaggio (that is, “Si Maayo”) in the Legazpi expedition’s account met with his brother-in-law, Rajah Tupas, the governor of Cebu, and planned to evacuate the people to the interior away from the city for safety.

On February 22, 1565 they reached the island of Samar guided by Datu Urrao. The Spaniards and their native allies left the island for the nearby islands of Mazaua and Leyte, guided by Datu Bankaw. Their ships drifted to the coast of Bohol on March 16, 1565 where they befriended with Datu Sikatuna and Rajah Sigala. Legazpi made a blood compact with the native chieftain, Datu Sikatuna, as a sign of friendship between the two people. There, the Spaniards obtained spices and gold after convincing the natives that they were not Portuguese.

Legazpi was helped very much by his friendship of the natives of Bohol so that his mission which was to land in Cebu was eased. Yet, he was so cautious about his strategy so he dispatched 15 Spanish soldiers on the captured balangay of the Shahbandar to Cebu in order to make friendship and peace with the inhabitants and to gather all possible information in relation to his mission. The Shahbandar guided the said Spaniards on his balangay and acted as their interpreter. Among the said Spanish messengers were Juan de la Isla, Martin de Goiti, and Estevan Rodriguez who described the natives as “these Indians wear gold earrings, and the chiefs wear two clasps about the feet… All the body, legs, and arms are painted and he who is the bravest (Tullah) is painted most”. The Shahbandar turned them over to Tullah who had sailed towards them. Tullah at this time was blackened by constant marauding in the seas against the Portuguese and now against the Spaniards, whom he thought at first as another Portuguese invaders. In order to avoid suspicion, Tullah told the Spaniards, through the Shahbandar, that he was a merchant and he was on his way to India and Malacca though he had the intention to facilitate Legazpi to land in Cebu. He inquired from the messengers what the Spaniards preferred. As the decision could only be made by Legazpi, the Spaniards had Legazpi met Tullah at sea since he was a “trader”. Tullah asked Legazpi if he intended to settle in Cebu and if he desired he must settle in the interior because food was very abundant there and that even the return of the vessel Legazpi to Spain to inform the Spanish king could easily be filled with whatever they wanted to give to the Spanish king. But this was obviously a reverse tactic – that is, Tullah wanted the Spaniards to avoid in going to the interior to give time for the civilians to fully evacuate the city unharmed. Legazpi cautious of what had happened to Magellan thought otherwise – if they would be cut off from the outside and when they misbehaved they would easily be controlled by the natives of Cebu. Legazpi immediately called a council and it was decided that the fleet should go to Cebu without delay, in order that they might make a settlement and dispatch the flagship San Pedro before the rainy season sets in.

On Easter Day, the fleet set sail for Cebu but being delayed by contrary winds and the tides it did not reach its destination “until the 28th and 30th of April”. It was openly agreed by Legazpi with the Shahbandar and Tullah that the intention of the Spaniards was “to make peace inasmuch as their chiefs had been baptized, and had afterwards been apostatized.

But contrary to what had been agreed, Legazpi, on April 28, 1565, exactly 44 years ago when Magellan was killed in Mactan, bombarded the city of Cebu before landing on the soil which shots burned the houses of the natives. He then sent a group of his men ashore. Finding the city vacated, thinking that the natives ran away upon hearing the explosions of the cannons, the said group of men burned the city, of which “about 100 houses were burned”. Then Legazpi and his men settled near the seashore contrary to the advice of Tullah. The soldiers were quartered in the houses remaining after the fire.174

Tullah, with 100 men, guided Legazpi and his men towards the palace of the “celestial fairy”, the present-day Basilica Minore del Santo Niño, where they found the image of Señor Santo Niño covered with a white cloth in its fine cradle with fresh flowers. Tullah who had introduced himself as “Si Maayu” (Simaggio in Spanish account) or as “Mir Shah Raju” (Mermeo in Spanish account) took the image and gave it to Legazpi. When Legazpi saw it, “he fell on his knees, receiving it with great devotion. He took it in his hands – kissed its feet; and raising his eyes to heaven he said: ‘Lord, thou art powerful to punish the offenses committed in this island against thy majesty, and to found herein the house, and holy church, where thy glory and honor, and the exaltation of the Holy Catholic faith.’ And ordered that this sacred image be placed with all reverence in the first church that should be founded, and the city where it was found be called the City of the Most Holy Name of Jesus. It gave great happiness and inspiration to all to see such an auspicious beginning, for of a truth it seemed a work of God to have preserved so completely this image among the infidels for such a long time; and an auspicious augury in the part where the settlement was to be made.” 175

The Spaniards had searched for Rajah Tupas, the governor of Cebu, who had treated with Fernan Magellan in 1521 as representative of Sultan Muhammad Shah. But the natives had vacated the city since the arrival of the Spaniards in February. According to Balamban oral tradition, the “celestial fairy” (Hara Amihan) with Rajah Tupas and some of the soldiers had managed to escape by way of the Combado-Lusaran river tributary system. The “celestial fairy” had sailed away back to Java from the old town of Balamban which was used to stand at the coast of Nangka, a barangay of Balamban, before it sank to the sea around 1870’s.176 Unable to treat with Tupas, the Spanish envoy announced that the Cebuanos had submitted to Spanish Suzarainty 44 years before and were rebellious Spanish subjects. The Spanish sacked the town and began construction of a stockaded camp and took possession of the whole island of Cebu in the name of Spain.

On May 8, 1565, Tupas with a thousand warriors armed with “long, sharp iron lance, throwing sticks, shields, small daggers, wooden corselets, corded breastplates, a few bows and arrows and culverins” presented himself at the Spanish fort and agreed to formalize a treaty. But Tupas was bewildered after hearing what Legazpi had told, “We come thither for the King of Castilla, whose land this is, who had sent other people here before, but they had been killed – as for instance, Magallanes. But everything will be pardoned if you will become our friend.” Tupas acceded with the peace proposal but did not return at the appointed time to conclude the preliminaries after finding that those men were not Portuguese but Spaniards, the same “bad men” who did not have a word of honor. Tupas sent the aged, mothers, and children deeper into the hills away from the Spaniards. A body of men was then sent out by Legazpi who had captured twenty of the natives, among them were Birorang Kinis, the niece of Tupas who was kept hostage by the Spaniards. But she had been freed after Tupas ordered her release. A Spaniard named Pedro de Aranda had been killed during that incident.

Legazpi resolved to send Urdaneta back to New Spain, both to try and find an effective return route across the Pacific, and to try and obtain help for the new colony from New Spain. Between his departure from Cebu on 1 June 1565, and his arrival in Acapulco, New Spain, on 8 October 1565, Urdaneta discovered the northern, eastbound, return route from the Philippines to New Spain which made possible the establishment of the Manilla galleon trade.

After knowing that the San Pedro had left and after receiving a letter of apology from the Spanish king addressed to Tullah as king of Cebu for the lootings done by Magellan and his men, Tullah and Tupas who had found it an opportune time to sign a treaty sent the Shahbandar, Cid Hamal, to negotiate with Legazpi on June 2, 1565, a day after the Spanish flagship left.

“Legazpi expressed his sorrow that the natives were fleeing to the mountains and would not give credence to the friendship and peace offered them in the name of the king, by the Castillians. Word was sent to Tupas that Legazpi regretted the necessity of warring with the natives and that when they wished to return, they might do name the governor and captain residing the island, and to receive the latter whenever he should come to the islands, towns and houses – whether for peace or for war, without any resistance or hostility, to fulfill his commands, and not to withdraw themselves from this dominion, now or in the future. This they promised for themselves and their future descendants, under risk of falling under and incurring the penalties which should be imposed in case of treachery and treason against their king and lord.”

Showing his sincerity with the peace treaty, Tupas told Legazpi that “his wife and daughters would like to come to see him, because they had a great desire to know him. He replied that he would be very glad and that Tupas should bring them whenever he wished; accordingly Tupas did so after a few days.”

It was described by Legazpi that “the women came by themselves in procession, two and two, and the one last of all. After this manner came the wife of Tupas (Hara Si Hupay), with her on the shoulder of two principal women, with a procession of more than sixty women, all singing in high voices. Most of them wore palm leaf hats on their heads and some of them garland of various kinds of flowers, some were adorned with gold, and some with clasps on their legs and wearing earrings, armlets and gold rings on their hands and fingers. They were all clad in colored petticoats or shirts and shawls, some of them made of taffeta.”

Within this period Tupas had sent some of his datus to other islands to inform the other chiefs about the presence of Legazpi in Cebu so that they could strengthen their defenses and for possible offenses they would make to get rid of the Spaniards.

A few days after the coming of Hara Si Hupay and the other women, Tupas sent Birorang Kinis (Jandulaman in other account), the widowed daughter of Tullah, to Legazpi and was baptized Isabel in honor of Isabel Garces, Legazpi’s deceased wife. Later, she married Master Andrea Calafata, a Greek calker. Andrea is a masculine name among the Greeks equivalent to Andrew. The said wedding was officiated by Fray Diego Herrera. On that day during the wedding, Tullah had sent his eight datus from Sulu to spy within the Spanish settlement and fort. On their vinta, Muhammad ul-Halim, the grandson of Tullah who was still a Pangiran Buddiman at that time, the leader of the said datus asked the permission from Legazpi to trade with the Spaniards if they would trade with them. They told Legazpi that they learmed of the Spanish settlement in Cebu through the Shahbandar who had been sent to Panay to buy rice for the fort and that they did no harm to anyone and were possessed of a great quantity of silver and small coins and they came to find out the manner of trading. The said datus kept on coming to the port of Cebu. One day while trading for pearls, one of them had sneezed for which reason they declared that they could not buy according to their custom for if they did, they would sin therein. The said datus induced two junks from Mindoro “to come to trade at Cebu and told about the good treatment afforded to them”. And they had gone to Tanjay too “to get some provisions”. Probably trade was only made as an alibi by Tullah but in the actual sense, the said datus were sent as envoys to recruit combatants against the Spaniards if they would misbehave like Magellan did.

After some delay, the treaty was formalized on July 3, 1565. The said treaty signed by Tupas in behalf of Cebu and by Legazpi in behalf of Spain provided the following:

1)    On condition, that the chief who killed Pedro de Aranda by treachery should not enjoy this peace and friendship, until he had appeared before the said governor to make his plea and whose punishment the governor said he reserved for himself.

2)    On condition, that if the said Tupas and chiefs asked the said governor for the aid of his men against any Indians hostile to them, who were making or should make war upon them, the said governor was obliged to give them aid, protection and reinforcement of men for it. Likewise, if the said governor should request people from the said Indians, they would be obliged to volunteer to fight against his enemies. All the spoils taken when the said Spaniards and Indians were acting in consent should be divided into two equal parts, of which the said governor and his people were to have one part and the said natives the other.

The signing of the treaty was sealed by a blood compact between Tupas and Legazpi.

“Legazpi promised the natives that for the first year they pay no tribute for the King of Castille had no need of their possessions, nor wished more than that they recognized him as Lord, since they were his and within his demarcation. As this was made clear, Tupas and his men curtsied in recognition of the agreement and upon seeing this Legazpi promised to protect and defend as such.”

Historian William Henry Scott characterizes the treaty as "... actually the terms of an unconditional surrender... a kind of prototype of the unequal treaties which western nations were to fasten on Oriental peoples for the next three centuries."

On November 28, 1565, the people of Cebu had witnessed the weakness of Legazpi’s leadership and his cruelty even among his men. Some of Legazpi’s soldiers and servants conspired to seize the San Juan, one of the galleons composing the Spanish fleet, and making first a cruise through the islands, to seize “the junks of Borneo, Luzon and Mindoro, trading among the islands”. The mutiny had every appearance of succeeding for the master of the San Pablo had in his care all the artillery, powders, and ammunition aboard the ship. The master of San Pablo divulged the conspiracy of the master-of-the-camp, Mateo del Sanz, who immediately informed Legazpi. Pablo Hernandez, a native of Venice, head of conspiracy fled, first making an ineffectual attempt to assume the ecclesiastical garb, in order that he might not be lost; he gave himself up, and was hanged.

It could be understood that Tullah who had known the Portuguese captain-general, Gonzalo Pereira, who was assigned in Malacca, had informed the latter about the presence of the Spaniards in Cebu so that the Portuguese would indirectly help the Cebuanos get rid of the Spaniards. Thus, on September 18, 1565, a small vessel of Portuguese captained by Antonio Ronbo da Costa (Antonio Rrumbo de Acosta in Spanish) arrived at the port of Cebu. He had with him a letter from the captain-general telling Legazpi that their army was near the port of Cebu. And on September 30, 1565, the said captain-general entered the port of Cebu with a heavy fleet of Portuguese and demanded that the Spaniards went with them to India and that they should leave the islands since they were within the demarcation of the king of Portugal.

Two years later, in 1567, about 2,100 Spaniards and Mexicans arrived in Cebu under orders of the Spanish king. They built the Fuerza de San Pedro (Fortress of Saint Peter), which provided a haven for arriving Mexican ships and protection from hostile natives. Between March and June 1567, the Portuguese at Amboyna were reinforced by Pereira with twelve ships while the inhabitants put the friendly peoples of Atire and Tavira to the sword.

Tupas and 25-year old son Pinsuncan, were baptized on March 21, 1568.  Tupas was renamed Felipe after Philip II while Pinsuncan was renamed as Carlos.

The Spanish settlement in Cebu was regarded with great jealousy by the Portuguese established in the Moluccas. In October 1568, the latter sent an armed expedition to break it up. Exchanges of letters between Pereira and Legazpi followed within the intervals of October 14, 19, & 21. Pereira and Legazpi had carried on protracted negotiations. The latter claimed that he had come to make new discoveries for his king; to propagate Christianity and ransom Christians held captive by the heathen in those regions; and that he regarded the Philippines as being within the jurisdiction of Spain. Pereira insisted that the islands were of Portugal under the Treaty of Tordesillas and stated that if he was mistaken he would depart from the islands, promising to transport them to India, and offering them all aid and kindness, if they would accede to this demand. Legazpi refused.

Within that interval, the warriors of Taguima (now known as Basilan), under the leadership of Tullah, attacked the unsuspecting Portuguese who were trading at the Moluccas. They took the Portuguese galleon and killed a number of Portuguese. Those who were captured alive were taken to Sulu and were sold out to the new reigning sultan, Muhammad ul-Halim, who was a “friend” of the Portuguese. It is to be recalled that the merchants coming from Taguima who traded at the Moluccas were oppressed by the Portuguese and more often cheated by the latter. Hence, their act was a sort of retaliation or revenge. Within that period too, the Catholics at the islands of Morobachan (now Batjan), Anboyno (now Amboina), and Celebs (Celebes but now known as Sulawesi) were harassed by the Muslims, according to the report. Thus, on October 19, 1568, Pereira had sent a letter addressed to the king of Ternate to investigate on the matter.

The Portuguese attacked Cebu and proceeded to blockade its port, to secure that no food aid and weapon supplies will reach the Spanish settlement, making the island of Cebu as another site where the Spanish and the Portuguese Empire clashed for world colonization. The Portuguese blockaded the Spaniards upon all sides and the galleys and pinnaces aforesaid had sacked, fired, and burned all the neighboring villages, and killed the natives and inhabitants, without exempting even women and children, in the towns of Gavi (in Mactan), Cotcot, Lilo-an, Danao and Mandaue. The battle lasted for few days but the blockade lasted for months.

In a series of letters to their respective kings, both Legazpi and Pereira blamed each other on who started to fire. Both were claiming that they only started to fire as a result of the attack of the other.

On June 5 & 8, 1569, the Portuguese attacked on Cebu and wrecked a Spanish vessel dispatched to Spain with a cargo of spices. And again on July 1, Gonzalo Pereira had made another attack.

Later, Legazpi was informed that some of his men were killed in Mactan. He informed Tupas that he wanted to wage war against Mactan and asked him to send troops to aid him but Tupas told him not to wage war against Mactan for he had already sent his men to secure food from the said island. Then when Legazpi learned that some of his men were also killed in Baybay (Leyte) by the warriors coming from Mactan who had migrated to the former after the battle that ensued in Mactan and that he wished to wage war against them, again, Tupas told Legazpi the same thing. In that way, war was avoided. But Tupas unable to tolerate the banditry of the Spaniards who kept on saying they wanted to go-a-trading but had no merchandise to barter with and the usurpation of Legazpi who proclaimed himself as governor of Cebu had thought of ending it by trickery. He had collaborated with his datus and his sister Birorang Batungay in executing a plan of poisoning the Spaniards which they found to be drunkards.

The next day, Birorang Batungay who garbed herself in men’s clothing went with some of the chiefs at the trading center where the men of Legazpi always went in big groups. They traded a great quantity of palm wine to which the Spaniards gave themselves with good appetite, saying that they did not miss the wine of the Castille but could not refuse the local wine which they found better than the former even though it was already forbidden by Legazpi since some of them had become sick. Birorang Batungay who found the Spaniards rude squeezed some poisonous vine into the jars of palm wine until it was found that most men of Legazpi died of poisoning.

An investigation on the tragedy was done but still Legazpi could not pinpoint the culprit. Soon after, all the natives were called and required to confess their sins to the Spanish priests in order to catch the criminal. The confessions should never be divulged according to the Catholic dogma – the reason why all of the natives went to confess. Birorang Batungay who confessed was hanged.

On September 1, 1569, the warriors led by Tupas attacked the Spanish settlement from all directions from the land. The fight continued for months until Legazpi felt they would lose to the fierce natives. In the dark evenings most of the Spaniards would stay in their boats and pataches for safety while few of the men would be left to guard their fort. This was discovered by the natives and coincidentally Gonzalo Pereira patrolled the seas of Cebu now and then and saw the Spanish galleons there and during these patrols they fought side by side with the natives against the Spaniards. The Portuguese though did not fight continuously and lengthily since they had to return to India for reinforcement whenever it would be needed. They were only on patrol to their “territories”. The Spaniards were trapped – the natives on land and the Portuguese at sea.

On March 23, 1570, Legazpi and his men moved to Panay to establish a second Spanish settlement. But the warriors coming from Cebu chased after them and continued attacking them until they were driven to Luzon on May 1, 1570.177

The Spaniards led by Martin de Goiti who were sent from Cebu by Legaspi arrived in Luzon on May 8, 1570 and camped on the shores of Manila Bay for several weeks. While forming an alliance with the Muslim tribal chiefs, on May 24, 1570, after disputes and hostility erupted between the two groups, the Spaniards occupied the villages of Tondo where they were greeted with thousands of warriors. There, they defeated most of the tribes of Karim (known as Rajah Matanda in Luzon), the son of Abdullah Sulayman (Prabu Cakrabuana); Tullah (known as Lakan Dula in Luzon); and Sulayman, the “son” of Tullah. The Spaniards marched their armies towards the Pasig River, and occupied the villages in Manila on June 6, 1570 and burned the settlements. Guerrilla warfare broke out following the battle, which continued for about ten months. The Spaniards fortified themselves in the area and constructed their military barracks of Fuerza de Santiago (Fortress of Saint James), which became their outpost for trade with Mexico.

On October 19, 1570, while Fernando Riquel, chief government notary of Spain, was building some gabions on the river of Cebu City, for the defense of certain pieces of artillery, which Legazpi had ordered to be mounted there, Pereira, who had anchored at the port had sent him a letter demanding him to stop working on the gabions. The following day, to please Pereira, Legazpi ordered the work to be stopped. Yet on the next day again, in the morning, Pereira had sent another letter demanding the demolition of the said gabions for it seemed to be a menace to him and his fleet for if not he would take it for granted as a declaration of war. In the afternoon, the Portuguese galleys and small boats came ashore; battered down the said gabions with a great number of guns; and continued until sunset.

However, when it became clear that Legazpi and the Spanish would not leave the Philippines, Pereira decided to give up and went back to Malacca. Despite having a supreme force against Legazpi, Pereira would not dare have any loss on his part because Portuguese possessions in Moluccas were being attacked by local enemies too. Even if Pereira beat Legazpi, he will risk the entire Moluccas which is more vital to Portugal than their claim of the Philippines.

Pereira’s attack in Cebu marked the last time that the Portuguese tried to capture the Philippines from Spain.

The Spaniards gained control of the settlements on June 24, 1571, after the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi in Manila, who agreed to a peace agreement.

The Spanish colonization paved the way for the establishment of Manila as a permanent settlement and capital city of the Spanish East Indies. He later explored Pampanga, Pangasinan and founded several Spanish cities in Luzon between the periods of 1571-1573. De Goiti, along with other soldiers was granted with haciendas (estates) for the lands they had conquered, by Philip II of Spain.178

On August 20, 1572, Legazpi died passing the control of Luzon to his 13-year old nephew Juan de Salcedo.179

In September 1573, Pereira had been ordered to Malacca to crush the “celestial fairy” at Jepara but refused for want of adequate equipment and returned to Lisbon. There was confusion among some “historians” who suggested that Pereira went to Moluccas and died there after his attacks on Cebu.180 Yet, the earlier Gonzalo Pereira who was assigned as governor of Moluccas in 1530 and was murdered by the inhabitants of Ternate in 1531 was obviously a different person.181

In 1574, Tristào Vaz de Veiga was appointed commander at Malacca.182 In that year too, Diego de Sanbucho was sent to Moluccas as its new appointed governor only to find out that the fort at Ternate had already been destroyed by the inhabitants. It was found out that a certain Portuguese killed the king of Ternate and captured the king’s son, Francisco, and three relatives namely Enrique, Pablo Desa, and Jordan de Fletes were taken to India and then to Malacca. Raged with fury, the people of Ternate attacked and surrounded the fort until the Portuguese who were there died of hunger. Those who had fled with their families and cattle settled in Ambon or in Malacca. Later on, those who went to Malacca had transferred to Ambon. The people of Ternate demanded from the Portuguese the return of Francisco, the prince of Ternate, and only by then that they would make peace-talk and return back the fort to them. Though the Portuguese had to stay at Ternate for the next century their hold at Moluccas, the whole of Asia, had gradually diminished due to that revolt at Ternate.183

On June 21, 1574, King Philip II of Spain had bestowed on Luzon the New Kingdom of Castille and on Manila that of “Distinguished and Ever Loyal City”. Soon after that almost the entire Luzon was subjugated to the Spanish crown under the leadership of the 16-year old Juan de Salcedo by marrying lot of princesses. The natives were easily converted to Christianity.184

In October 1574, the combined fleets of Aceh lead by its admiral Ki Demat and the 300 ships containing 15,000 soldiers of Japara sent by the “celestial fairy” attacked the Portuguese at Malacca again, particularly the Porta da Santiago. But it was beaten. Japara troops immediately opened fire from the strait then penetrated on land the following day and built defenses. But the Portuguese had able to destroy the defenses and set 30 ships from Japara on fire. The Portuguese denied any peace talks and confiscated the six ship-loads of supplies coming from Japara. Weakened, the combined fleets of Aceh and Jepara retreated. Only about a hundred ships were able to return to Jepara. Though twice defeated, the “celestial fairy” had shown an example of bravery by which she was described by the Portuguese as “Rainha da Joparra, Senhora poderosa e rica, da kranige Dame” which means "Queen of Japara, a rich and powerful woman, a brave woman".185

Still in the same year, De Goiti fought in the war during the invasion of about 3,000 Chinese sea pirates who had sailed from the South China Sea. Their leader, Limahong, besieged the Spanish settlements in Manila. De Goiti was killed by pirates, who massacred most of the Spaniards in the villages. Most of the Spanish reinforcements came from Vigan and Cebu. Martín de Goiti's second in command, Juan de Salcedo left Ilocos Sur, after hearing the news and traveled to Manila where he discovered their settlements had been ceded to the pirates. Salcedo's forces attacked and drove the pirates out of Manila. Limahong and his fleets retreated to Pangasinan where they re-organize their forces. Probably, Limahong was not really a pirate but a general sent by the Ming emperor to aid Tullah in subjugating the Spanish invaders.

In 1575, Salcedo's army marched north to Pangasinan, in pursuit of the pirates, and besieged them for three months. There the Spaniards captured Limahong and his fleets in the river of Pangasinan and were executed. The following year Salcedo died at the age of 27.186

In 1578, Sebastian, the king of Portugal, was killed in a battle at Morocco against the Muslims leaving without heir to the throne. King Philip II of Spain being the son of Princess Isabel of Portugal, the wife of Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire, claimed the throne. And in 1581, he enthroned himself at Lisbon as the king of Spain and Portugal. That union lasted until 1640.187

In 1591 AD, the Cambodian king, Phra Unkar Langara, sent a gift of two royal elephants, gems and horses to the lords of Luzon to petition them to aid him in the war against Siam.188

In 1593, the Spaniards from the Philippines had built a fort at Ternate. In the next 50 years, Manila was managing the trade while the Spaniards were ruling the Moluccas with the assistance of the Pampangeños from Luzon.189

The Banten account suggested that Tullah died in 1570, a year when Martin de Goiti besieged Manila which could very probable and would suggest that he died fighting until the end and as a Muslim. Yet, according to Mindanao account Tullah died 90 years old at old age which would occur around 1572 coinciding with the death of Legazpi which would suggest that he did not only die at old age but also as converted Christian. But the Cirebon account states that he died at the age of 120 and that would fall around 1602 and died a Muslim yet there is a passage in the said Cirebon account that seemed to suggest that he was a Christian or a Muslim who planted Christianity (at Long Bawan) or a practicing Jew who merged Christianity and Islam in his Judaic root. Whichever of the three choices given is correct one thing is for sure: Tullah was a real national hero not only to Indonesia but to all countries in Southeast Asia. Yet, a somewhat funny irony is that, though his real identity has been forgotten, his memory that is still struggling to exist has become an epitome of a fish – that is, the corruption of his name has become a name of a fish (lapu-lapu) and his real name has become synonymous to the act of boiling a fish (tuah or tulah) -- which is a sad fate for a hero who fight and die for freedom and democracy. Probably, it is the effect of eating the wonderful archerfish or the red grouper which legend tells made him strong. Or he has chosen to transform into a fish so that even at the end of times he can still protect and guard the “Pearl of the Orient Seas” whose beloved “Queen of the South” has become its core. That heroic fish that is protecting the “Pearl of the Orient Seas” and was transported to paradise by bird is now a subject in Maranao art – the sarimanok with a fish.

The fall of Madjapahit Empire occurred in the latter half of the sixteenth century. Decline has been attributed to: (a) the entrance of Islam into Java's politics and (b) the conquest of European explorers like the Dutch, Portuguese, British, French, and Spanish with the battle-cry of propagating Christianity but in reality of the ambition of controlling maritime trade over Southeast Asia.